Methods of teaching speech
Contents
Introduction
Chapter
I. Theoretical foundations of teaching speaking pupils of
junior form
1.1 The most common
difficulties in auding and speaking
1.2
Psychological characteristics of speech
1.3
Linguistic characteristics of speech
1.4
Prepared and unprepared speech
1.5. Mistakes
and how to correct them
Chapter
II. Speaking in teaching practice
2.1
Speech and oral exercises
2.2
Techniques the teacher uses to develop hearing
.
2.3
Techniques the teacher uses for teaching speaking
Conclusion
List of
literature
Vocabulary
Introduction
Our work is devoted to the
method of teaching the speech. But for the beginning let’s examine what is
speech.
Language came into life
as a means of communication. It exists and is alive only through speech. When
we speak about teaching a foreign language, we first of all have in mind
teaching it as a means of communication.
In teaching speech the
teacher has to cope with two tasks. They are: to teach his pupils to understand
the foreign language and to teach them to speak the language. So, speech is a
bilateral process. It includes hearing, on the one hand, and speaking, on the
other. When we say "hearing" we mean auding or listening and
comprehension.
Speaking exists in two
forms: dialogue and monologue.
The aim of our work is:
1.
to observe the
speech as a bilateral process;
2.
to give the basic
notions of the speech;
3.
to make an
examples of exercises in of speaking and hearing.
Practical value of this paper is
determined by the fact that the developed material and proper tasks and exercises make available
the use of this work as a
manual in teaching a foreign language at classroom or as a given homework, or as a useful material for
elective additional courses of foreign language
at school.
The paper consists of introduction and two
chapters followed by conclusion. The first chapter is about the most common
difficulties in auding and speaking a foreign language. Also it consists of
psychological and linguistic characteristics of the speech. Further we find differences between prepared and
unprepared speech and in this chapter we learn to find mistakes of pupils and how
to correct them. In the second chapter are given the exercises, which help the
teachers to obtain results in teaching speech.
Chapter I. Theoretical foundations of
teaching speaking pupils of junior form
1.1 The most common
difficulties in auding and speaking
Auding or listening and
comprehension are difficult for learners because they should discriminate
speech sounds quickly, retain them while hearing a word, a phrase, or a sentence
and recognize this as a sense unit. Pupils can easily and naturally do this in
their own language and they cannot do this in a foreign language when they
start learning the language. Pupils are very slow in grasping what they hear
because they are conscious of the linguistic forms they perceive by the ear.
This results in misunderstanding or a complete failure of understanding.
When auding a foreign
language pupils should be very attentive and think hard. They should strain
their memory and will power to keep the sequence of sounds they hear and to
decode it. Not all the pupils can cope with the difficulties entailed. The
teacher should help them by making this work easier and more interesting. This
is possible on condition that he will take into consideration the following
three main factors which can ensure success in developing pupils' skills in
auding: (1) linguistic material for auding; (2) the content of the material
suggested for listening and comprehension; (3) conditions in which the material
is presented.
1. Comprehension of the
text by the ear can be ensured when the teacher uses the material which has
already been assimilated by pupils. However this does not completely eliminate
the difficulties in auding. Pupils need practice in listening and comprehension
in the target language to be able to overcome three kinds of difficulties:
phonetic, lexical, and grammatical.[4]
Phonetic difficulties
appear because the phonic system of English and Russian differ greatly. The
hearer often interprets the sounds of a foreign language as if they were of his
own language which usually results in misunderstanding. The following opposites
present much trouble to beginners in learning English:
Θ — s tr
— tƒ A — o s — z a: — o
Θ — f dr
— dg d — z t — tƒ o: — ə:
w — v d
— v n — rj ae — e
Pupils also find it
difficult to discriminate such opposites as: o: — o, a — A, i: — i, u: — u.
They can hardly
differentiate the following words by ear: worked — walked; first — fast —
forced; lion — line; tired — tide; bought — boat — board.
The difference in
intonation often prevents pupils from comprehending a communication. For
example, Good ΄morning (when meeting); Good ˛morning
(at parting).
The teacher, therefore,
should develop his pupils' ear for English sounds and intonation.
Lexical difficulties are
closely connected with the phonetic ones. Pupils often misunderstand words
because they hear them wrong. For example: The horse is slipping. The horse
is sleeping. They worked till night. They walked till night.
The opposites are often
misunderstood, for the learners often take one word for another. For example: east—
west, take — put; ask — answer. The most difficult words for auding are the
verbs with postpositions, such as: put on, put off, put down, take off, see
off, go in for, etc.
Grammatical difficulties
are mostly connected with the analytic structure of the English language, and
with the extensive use of infinitive and participle constructions. Besides,
English is rich in grammatical homonyms, for example: to work — work; to
answer — answer; -ed as the suffix of the Past Indefinite and the Past
Participle.
This is difficult for
pupils when they aud.
2. The content of the material
also influences comprehension. The following factors should be taken into
consideration when selecting the material for auding:
The topic of
communication: whether it is within the ability of the pupils to understand,
and what difficulties pupils will come across (proper names, geographical
names, terminology, etc).
The type of
communication: whether it is a description or a narration. Description as a
type of communication is less emotional and interesting, that is why it is
difficult for the teacher to arouse pupils' interest in auding such a text. Narration
is more interesting for auding. Consequently, this type of communication should
be used for listening comprehension.
The context and pupils'
readiness (intellectual and situational) to understand it. The way the
narrative progresses: whether the passage is taken from the beginning of a
story, the nucleus of the story, the progress of the action or, finally, the
end of the story. The title of the story may be helpful in comprehending the
main idea of the text. The simpler the narrative progresses, the better it is
for developing pupils' skills in auding.
The form of
communication: whether the text is a dialogue or a monologue. Monologic speech
is easier for the learners, therefore, it is preferable for developing pupils'
ability to aud.
3. Conditions of
presenting the material are of great importance for teaching auding, namely:
The speed of the speech
the pupil is auding. The hearer cannot change the speed of the speaker.
There are different
points of view on the problem of the speed of speech in teaching auding a
foreign language. The most convincing is the approach suggested by N. V.
Elukhina. She believes that in teaching auding the tempo should be slower than
the normal speed of authentic speech. However this slowness is not gained at
the expense of the time required for producing words (that might result in
violating the intonation pattern of an utterance), but of the time required for
pauses which are so necessary for a pupil to grasp the information of each
portion between the pauses. Gradually the teacher shortens the pauses and the
tempo of speech becomes normal or approximately normal, which is about 150
words per minute. According to the investigation carried out by L. Tzesarsky
the average speed for teaching auding should be 120 words per minute; the slow
speed — 90 words per minute.
The number of times of
presenting the material for auding: whether the pupils should listen to the
text once, twice, three times or more. Pupils should be taught to listen to the
text once and this must become a habit. However they sometimes can grasp only
50% of the information and even less, so a second presentation may be helpful.
In case the pupils cannot grasp most of the information, practice proves that
manifold repetitions when hearing do not help much. It is necessary to help
pupils in comprehension by using a "feed back" established through a
dialogue between the teacher and the class 1 which takes as much time as it is
required for the repetitive presentation of the material.[2]
The presence or the
absence of the speaker. The most favorable condition is when pupils can see the
speaker as is the case when the teacher speaks to them in a foreign language.
The most unfavorable condition for auding is listening and comprehending a
dialogue, when pupils cannot see the speakers and do not take part in the
conversation.
Visual "props"
which may be of two kinds, objects and motions. Pupils find it difficult to aud
without visual props. The eye should help the ear to grasp a text when dealing
with beginners.
The voice of the speaker
also influences pupils' comprehension. Pupils who get used to the teacher's
voice can easily understand him, but they cannot understand other people speaking
the same language.
Consequently, in teaching
listening comprehension the teacher should bear in mind all the difficulties
pupils encounter when auding in a foreign language.
Speaking a foreign
language is the most difficult part in language learning because pupils need
ample practice in speaking to be able to say a few words of their own in connection
with a situation. This work is time-consuming and pupils rarely feel any real
necessity to make themselves understood during the whole period of learning a
new language in school. The stimuli the teacher can use are often feeble and
artificial. The pupil repeats the sentence he hears, he completes sentences
that are in the book, he constructs sentences on the pattern of a given one.
These mechanical drill exercises are, of course, necessary; however, when they
go on year after year without any other real language practice they are
deadening. There must be occasions when the pupils feel the necessity to inform
someone of something, to explain something, and to prove something to someone.
This is a psychological factor which must be taken into account when teaching
pupils to speak a foreign language.
Another factor of no less
importance is a psycho-linguistic one; the pupil needs words, phrases, sentence
patterns, and grammatical forms and structures stored up in his memory ready to
be used for expressing any thought he wants to. In teaching speaking,
therefore, the teacher should stimulate his pupils' speech by supplying them
with the subject and by teaching them the words and grammar they need to speak
about the suggested topic or situation. The teacher should lead his pupils to
unprepared speaking through prepared speaking.[5]
1.2 Psychological characteristics of speech
The development of
speaking follows the same pattern both in the mother tongue and in a foreign
language from reception to reproduction as psychologists say, and from hearing
to speaking if we express it in terms of methodology.
Since "language is
not a substance, it is a process." (N. Brooks) and "language doesn't
exist. It happens." (P. Stevens), we should know under what conditions
"it happens". What are the psychological characteristics of oral
language? They are as follows:
1. Speech must be
motivated, i. e., the speaker expresses a desire to inform the hearer of
something interesting, important, or to get information from him. Suppose one
of the pupils is talking to a friend of hers. Why is she talking? Because she
wants to either tell her friend about something interesting, or get information
from her about something important. This is the case of inner motivation. But
very often oral speech is motivated outwardly. For instance, the pupil's
answers at an examination.
Rule for the teacher: In teaching a foreign language it is
necessary to think over the motives which make pupils speak. They should have a
necessity to speak and not only a desire to receive a good mark, Ensure
conditions in which a pupil will have a desire to say something in the foreign
language, to express his thoughts, his feelings, and not to reproduce someone
else's as is often the case when he learns the text by heart. Remember that
oral speech in the classroom should be always stimulated. Try to use those
stimuli which can arouse a pupil's wish to respond in his own way.
2. Speech is always
addressed to an interlocutor.
Rule for the teacher: Organize the teaching process in a
way which allows your pupils to speak to someone, to their classmates in
particular, i. e., when speaking a pupil should address the class, and not the
teacher or the ceiling as is often the case. When he retells a text which is no
longer new to the class, nobody listens to him as the classmates are already
familiar with it. This point, as one can see, is closely connected with the
previous one. The speaker will hold his audience when he says something new,
something individual (personal). Try to supply pupils with assignments which
require individual approach on their part.
3. Speech is always
emotionally colored for a speaker expresses his thoughts, his feelings, his
attitude to what he says.
Rule for the teacher: Teach pupils how to use intonational
means to express their attitude, their feelings about what they say. That can
be done by giving such tasks as: reason why you like the story; prove
something; give your opinion on the episode, or on the problem concerned, etc.
Rule for the teacher: While teaching speaking real and
close-to-real situations should be created to stimulate pupils' speech. Think
of the situations you can use in class to make pupils' speech situational.
Remember the better you know the class the easier it is for you to create
situations for pupils to speak about.
These are the four
psychological factors which are to be taken into account when teaching speech.[1]
1.3 Linguistic characteristics of speech
Oral language as compared
to written language is more flexible. It is relatively free and is
characterized by some peculiarities in vocabulary and grammar. Taking into
consideration, however, the] conditions in which the foreign language is taught
in schools, we cannot teach pupils colloquial English. We teach them Standard
English as spoken on the radio, TV, etc. Oral language taught in schools is
close to written language standards and especially its monologic form. It must
be emphasized that a pupil should use short sentences in monologue, sentence
patterns which are characteristic of oral language. We need not teach pupils to
use long sentences while describing a picture. For example: The boy has a
long blue pencil in his left hand. The child may use four sentences instead of
one: The boy has a pencil. Ifs in his left hand. The pencil is long. It is
blue.
Pupils should be
acquainted with some peculiarities of the spoken language, otherwise they will
not understand it when hearing and their own speech will be artificial. This
mainly concerns dialogues. Linguistic peculiarities of dialogue are as follows:
1. The use of incomplete
sentences (ellipses) in responses:
— How many books
have you?
— One.
— Do you go to
school on Sunday?
— No, - I don't.
— Who has done it?
— Nick has.
It does not mean, of
course, we should not teach pupils complete forms of response. But their use
should be justified.
— Have you seen the
film?
— Yes, I have seen
this film, and I am sorry I've wasted two hours.
— Did you like the
book?
— Yes, I liked it very
much.
2. The use of
contracted forms: doesn't, won't, can't, isn't, etc.
3. The use of some
abbreviations: lab (laboratory), mike (microphone), maths (mathematics), p. m.
(post meridiem), and others.
4. The use of
conversational tags. These are the words a speaker uses when he wishes to speak
without saying anything. Here is both a definition of conversational tags and
an example of their usage in conversation (they are in italics),
"Well, they are those things, you know,
which don't actually mean very much, of course, yet they are in fact
necessary in English conversation as behavior."
Besides, to carry on a
conversation pupils need words, phrases to start a conversation, to join it, to
confirm, to comment, etc. For example, well, look here, I say ..., I’d like
to tell you (for starting a talk); you see, you mean, do you mean to say that
..., and what about (for joining a conversation); / believe so, I hope, yes,
right, quite right, to be sure (for confirming what one says); / think, as far
as I know, as far as I can see, the fact is, to tell the truth, I mean to say
(for commenting), etc.
There is a great variety
of dialogue structures. Here are the principal four:
1. Question — response.
— Hello. What's your
name?
— Ann. What's yours?
— My name is
Williams
2. Question — question.
— Will you help me,
sonny?
— What shall I do,
mother?
— Will you polish
the floor today?
— Is it my turn?
— Yes, it is. Your
brother did it last time.
— Oh, all right,
then.
3. Statement — statement.
— I'd like to know
when he is going to come and see us.
—
That's difficult
to say. He is always promising but never comes.
—
It's because he
is very busy.
—
That's right. He
works hard.
4. Statement — question.
—
I'm going to the
theatre tonight.
—
Where did you get
tickets?
—
My friend got
them somewhere.
—
How did he do it?
—
I don't know.
In school teaching only one structure of dialogue is
usually used, i.e.,
question — response. More than that, pupils' dialogues are artificial and they
lack, as a rule, all the peculiarities mentioned above.
In teaching dialogue in schools it is necessary to take into
account these peculiarities and give pupils pattern dialogues to show what real
dialogues look like.[2]
1.4 Prepared and unprepared speech
Pupils' speech in both
forms may be of two kinds: prepared and unprepared. It is considered prepared
when the pupil has been given time enough to think over its content and form.
He can speak on the subject following the plan made either independently at home
or in class under the teacher's supervision. His speech will be more or less
correct and sufficiently fluent since plenty of preliminary exercises had been
done before.
In schools, however,
pupils often have to speak on a topic when they are not yet prepared for it. As
a result only bright pupils can cope with the task. In such a case the teacher
trying to find a way out 'gives his pupils a text which covers the topic.
Pupils learn and recite it in class. They reproduce the text either in the very
form it was given or slightly transform it. Reciting, though useful and
necessary in language learning, has but little to do with speech since speaking
is a creative activity and is closely connected with thinking, while reciting
has to do only with memory. Of course pupils should memorize words, word
combinations, phrases, sentence patterns, and texts to "accumulate"
the material and still it is only a prerequisite. The main objective of the
learner is to be able to use the linguistic material to express his thoughts.
This is ensured by the pupil's ability to arrange and rearrange in his own way
the material stored up in his memory. Consequently, while assigning homework it
is necessary to distinguish between reciting and speaking so that the pupil
should know what he is expected to do while preparing for the lesson — to
reproduce the text or to compile a text of his own. His answer should be
evaluated differently depending on the task set. If the pupil is to recite a
text, the teacher evaluates the quality of reproduction, i. e., exactness,
intonation and fluency. If the pupil is to speak on a subject, the teacher
evaluates not only the correctness of his speech but his skills in arranging
and rearranging the material learnt, i. e., his ability to make various transformations
within the material he uses while speaking. The teacher should encourage each
pupil to speak on the subject in his own way and thus develop pupils'
initiative and thinking.
The pupil's speech is
considered unprepared when, without any previous preparation, he can do the
following:
— Speak on a subject
suggested by the teacher. For example, winter holidays are over and pupils come
back to school. They are invited to tell the teacher and the class how each of
them spent his holidays. Pupils in turn tell the class where they were, what
they did, whether they had a good time, and so on.
— Speak on the text
read. For example, pupils have read two or three chapters of
"William". The teacher asks a pupil to give its short summary or to
tell the class the contents of the chapters as if the other pupils have not
read them.
— Speak on the text
heard. For example, pupils listened to the text "Great Britain"
(there is a map of Great Britain on the wall). The teacher asks them (in turn)
to come up to the map and speak on Great Britain. While speaking pupils can use
the information they have just received or appeal to their knowledge about
the country.
— Discuss a problem
or problems touched upon in the text read or heard. For example, pupils read
about education in Great Britain. After the teacher makes sure that his pupils
understand the text and have a certain idea of the system of education in Great
Britain, he arranges a discussion on the problem. He asks his pupils to compare
the system of education in Great Britain and in our country. The teacher
stimulates pupils' speech either by questions or through wrong statements.
— Have an interview
with "a foreigner". For example, pupils are studying the topic
"London". The teacher may arrange an interview. One of the pupils is
"a Londoner". The classmates ask him various questions and express
their opinions on the subjects under discussion.
— Help a
"foreigner", for example, to find the way to the main street or
square of the town; or instruct him as to the places of interest in the town.
This may be done directly or with the help of "an interpreter".
There are, of course,
other techniques for stimulating pupils' unprepared speech. The teacher chooses
the techniques most suitable for his pupils since he knows their aptitudes,
their progress in the language, the time he has at his disposal for developing
speaking skills, the concrete material at which pupils are working.
In conclusion it should
be said that prepared and unprepared speech must be developed simultaneously
from the very beginning. The relationship between prepared and unprepared
speech should vary depending on the stage of learning the language. In the
junior stage prepared speech takes the lead, while in the senior stage
unprepared speech should prevail.[6]
1.5 Mistakes and how to correct them
It is natural while
learning a foreign language that pupils make mistakes. They make mistakes in
auding when they misunderstand something in a text. They make mistakes in
speaking when pupils mispronounce a word, violate the order of words in a
sentence, misuse a preposition, an article, use wrong intonation, etc. The
teacher's main aim is to prevent pupils' errors. There is a good rule:
"Correct mistakes before they occur." In other words, careful teaching
results in correct English, i. e., pupils make very few mistakes. However, they
make them, and the problem is how to correct pupils’ errors.
If a pupil misunderstands
something when auding the teacher should do his best to ensure comprehension.
He suggests that the pupil should either listen to the sentence again; if he does
not understand it properly the teacher or the classmates help him to paraphrase
the sentence or translate" it, or see it written. The latter often helps
if pupils do not get used to hearing, if they are eye-learners. As far as
speaking is concerned it is the teacher who corrects pupils' mistakes. It is a
bad habit of some teachers to ask pupils to notice mistakes when their
classmate is called in front of the class to speak.
This is due to the
following reasons. Firstly, pupils' attention is drawn, not to what the
classmate says, but to how he says it, i. e., not to the content, but to the
form. If we admit that the form may not always be correct, then why should we
concentrate pupils' attention on the form? Moreover, when pupils' attention is
centered on errors, they often do not grasp what the classmate says, and that
is why they cannot ask questions or continue the story he has told them.
Secondly, the pupil who speaks
thinks more about how to say something instead of what to say. No
speaking is possible when the speaker has to concentrate on the form. He makes
more errors under this condition. More than that, he often refuses to speak
when he sees the classmates raise their hands after he has uttered his first
sentence. This does not encourage the learner to speak.
Accordingly when a pupil
is called to the front of the class to speak, the class is invited to follow
what he says so that they may be able to ask questions or to go on with the
story when he stops.
There is a great variety
of techniques at the teacher's disposal. He selects the one that is most
suitable for the occasion.
1. If a pupil makes a
mistake in something which is familiar to him, it is preferable to correct it
at once. But in order not to confuse the pupil and stop his narration the teacher
helps the child with the correct version.
Pupil: My mother get up
at 7 o'clock.
Pupil: Yes, my mother
gets up at 7.
2. If a pupil makes a
mistake in something which he has not learned yet the teacher corrects his
mistakes after he has finished speaking.
Pupil: She first visited
us in 1960.
She is a good friend of
ours since.
The teacher gives the
correct sentence: She has been a good friend of ours since.
If many pupils make the
same mistakes, for instance, in prepositions (go in instead of go to),
articles (the Moscow instead of Moscow, or Volga instead
of the Volga), in tense forms (the Present Continuous instead of the
Present Indefinite) the teacher makes note of them and gets the pupils to
perform drill exercises after answering questions.[5]
The teacher should not
emphasize incorrect forms in any way or they will be memorized along with the
correct ones, for instance: Books is. Do you say "books is"? You
shouldn't say "books is". What should you say?
Chapter II. Speaking in teaching
practice
2.1 Speech and oral exercises
We must distinguish
speech and oral exercises for they are often mixed up by the teacher.
Speech is a process of
communication by means of language. For example, (1) a pupil tells the class a
story about something which once happened to him; (2) the teacher asks
questions on the story read by the pupils at home and starts a discussion; (3)
pupils speak on the pictures suggested by the teacher, each tries to say what
others have not mentioned; (4) pupils listen to the story and get some new
information from the text; (5) they see a sound film and learn about something
new from it, etc.
Oral exercises are used
for the pupils to assimilate phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary. They are
mostly drill exercises and the teacher turns to them whenever he works at enriching
pupils' knowledge in vocabulary and grammar, at improving pupils'
pronunciation, etc. For example, reciting a rhyme or a poem is considered to be
an excellent oral exercise for drilling pronunciation and for developing speech
habits. Making up sentences following the model is an excellent oral exercise
for fixing a sentence pattern and words which fit the pattern in the pupils'
mind. Making statements with the words or phrases the teacher gives is another
valuable oral exercise which allows the teacher to retain them in his pupils'
memory through manifold repetitions.
Oral exercises are quite
indispensable to developing speech. However, they only prepare pupils for
speaking and cannot be considered to be “speech” as some teachers are apt to
think and who are often satisfied with oral exercises which pupils perform
following the model; they seldom use stimuli for developing pupils' auding and
speaking in the target language.[5]
In order to get a better
understanding of what speech is we are to consider the psychological and
linguistic characteristics of speech.
2.2 Techniques the teacher uses to develop
hearing
To fulfil the task the
teacher must train his pupils in listening comprehension beginning with the
first lesson and throughout the whole period of instruction. These are the
techniques the teacher uses for the purpose:
1. The teacher uses the
foreign language:
(a) when giving
the class instructions;
(b) when presenting
new language material (words, sentence patterns);
(c) when checking pupils'
comprehension;
(d) when
consolidating the material presented;
(e) when checking
pupils' assimilation of the language material covered.
These are the cases when
the target language is used as a means of communication and a means of
teaching. There is a great deal of auding in all the points of the lesson. This
raises the problem of the teacher's speech during the lesson. It should be correct,
sufficiently loud, clear, and expressive. But many of the teachers are too
talkative. We can hear them speaking most of the time. Moreover, some teachers
speak a great deal in Russian.
Conducting a lesson in a
foreign language gives the teacher an opportunity to develop pupils' abilities
in hearing; to train them in listening to him attentively during the lesson; to
demonstrate the language as a means of communication; to provide favorable
conditions for the assimilation of the language; to perfect his own speaking
skills; to keep his own speech under control, i. e., to keep himself from undue
talkativeness.
2. The teacher uses drill
and speech exercises for developing listening comprehension.
We can group drill
exercises into exercises designed for overcoming linguistic difficulties, and
exercises which can eliminate psychological difficulties.
The first group of drill
exercises includes:
(a) phonetic
exercises which will help the teacher to develop his pupils' ear for English
sounds:
— Listen to the following
words and raise your hands when you hear the words with [ae] (The teacher says:
desk, pen, ten, bag, etc.)
— Listen to the
following pairs of words and say in what sound they differ: pen — pin; bed —
bad; eyes — ice; white — wide.
(b) lexical exercises
which will help the teacher to develop pupils' skills in recognizing words:
— Listen to the
words and recognize the word boy among other words: a baby, a toy, a boat, a
boy, a girl.
— Listen to the
following words and raise your hands when you hear the words referring to
plants: street, tree, grass, class, flower, tower.
— Listen to the
following sentences and say whether the word country has the same meaning in
both sentences:
I usually spent my
holidays in the country.
The Soviet Union is a
large country.
(c) grammar exercises
which help the teacher to develop pupils' skills in recognizing grammar forms
and structures:
— Listen to the
following words and raise your hands when you hear words in plural: desk,
tables, book, box, pens, books, boxes, etc.
— Listen to the
following sentences and say in which one the word help is used as a noun.
He can help you. I need
his help.
The second group of drill
exercises includes:
(a) exercises which
help the teacher to develop his pupils' auditory memory:
— Listen to the
following words and try to memorize them. (The teacher pronounces a number of
words pointing to the object each denotes: a carrot, a potato, a cucumber, a
tomato. Afterwards pupils are told to point to the object the teacher
names.)
— Listen to the
phrases and repeat them. The teacher says: on the table,, in the box, near the
blackboard.
— Listen to the
sentences and repeat them. (The teacher says: I like tea. Ann doesn't like
tea. She likes milk.)
— Listen to the
sentences and repeat them in the same sequence. (The teacher says: In the
evening we have tea. I like it very much. The teacher may increase the
number of sentences for pupils to memorize.)
(b) exercises which
are designed for developing pupils' attention:
— Listen to the
following text: I have a sister. Her name is Ann. Mike has no sister. He has a
brother.
Now say what is the name
of Mike's sister.
— Listen to the
text. (The text follows.) Now say which sentence was omitted (added) when you
listened to it a second time.
(c) exercises which
develop pupils' visual imagination:
— Listen to the
following definition and give it a name: We write with it on the blackboard.
We take it when it rains.
— Listen and say
which season it is: It is cold. It often snows. Children can skate and ski.
(d) exercises which help
the teacher to develop his pupils' logical thinking:
— Listen to the
sentences and say whether they are logically arranged: Her name is
Mary. This is a girl.
Drill exercises are quite
indispensable to developing pupils' skills in listening comprehension.
Speech exercises are
designed for developing pupils' skills in auding. Several groups of exercises
may be suggested:
1. Exercises which
teach pupils to understand texts different in content, form, and type. Pupils are
asked to listen to a description or a narration; the text may be a dialogue, it
may deal with the life of people whose language the pupils study, or with the
pupils' environment.
— Listen to the
story. Your task is to define its main idea. You should choose one among those
suggested by the teacher.
— Listen to the
story. Your task is to grasp as much information as you can. While auding try
to put down key words and sentences; they will help you to convey the context
of the story.
2. Exercises which develop
pupils' skills to understand a text under different conditions. Sound producing
aids should be extensively used for developing pupils' auding, as pupils are
supposed to understand not only their teacher's speech, but other people speaking
the target language, including native speakers. Besides, sound producing aids
allow the teacher to supply pupils with recorded speech different in speed and
voice.
Before pupils are invited
to listen to the text the teacher should ensure that all the words and grammar
are familiar to the pupils otherwise language difficulties will prevent them
from understanding the story. Thus, if there are some unfamiliar words, the
teacher introduces them beforehand; he either puts them down on the blackboard
with the mother tongue equivalents in the sequence they appear in the text, or
he asks pupils to pronounce the words written on the blackboard if he plans a
talk on the text afterwards, and pupils are to use these words in their speech.[5]
Then the teacher should
direct his pupils' attention to what they are going to listen to. This is of
great importance for experiments prove that if your aim is that your pupils
should keep on talking on the text they have heard it stimulates their thinking
and facilitates their comprehension of the text.
The following tasks may
be suggested to draw pupils’ attention to what they are auding:
— Listen and try to
grasp the main idea of the story. You will be asked questions later on.
— Listen and try to
grasp the details. You will have to name them.
— Listen and make a
plan of the story.
— Listen to the
story and try to finish it (think of the end of the story).
— Listen to the
story. You will ask questions on it afterwards.
— Listen to the story.
We shall have a discussion on it. Etc.
When pupils are ready to
listen, the text can be read to them. If it is the teacher who reads or tells
the story, he can help pupils to comprehend the text with gestures. If the text
is recorded, a picture or pictures can facilitate comprehension. The pupils
listen to the text once as is usually the case in real communication. Then the
teacher checks their comprehension. If they have not understood it, they are
told to listen to the text again. The teacher can use a dialogue to help pupils
to understand the text after they have listened to the story for the first
time, i. e., he may ask questions, make statements on the text for pupils to
agree or reject them.
Checking pupils'
comprehension may be done in many ways depending on the stage of instruction,
pupils' progress in the language, and other factors. In any case, however, it
is necessary to proceed in order of complexity from mere recognition to
reproduction. The procedure may be:
general
questions
special
questions
wrong
statements
|
The teacher
checks his pupils’ comprehension only.
|
pupils’
questions on the text
making a plan
telling the
text according to the plan
(it may be
done
in a
chain-like way)
reciting the
text
giving the
gist of the text
written
reproduction of the
text
discussing the text
|
The teacher
checks pupils'
comprehension
and develops their speaking skills on the basis of the text heard.
|
Skills in hearing must be
built up gradually. The teacher begins with a story containing 3—4 sentences.
He uses pictures, gestures to help pupils to understand it. Gradually he can
take longer sections and faster speeds with less visual help and in more difficult
language. The teacher must bear in mind that careful grading in all these ways
is of the utmost importance. Texts, stories to be read or recorded should be
interesting and fairly easy.
2.3 Techniques the teacher uses for teaching
speaking
There are two forms of
speaking: monologue and dialogue. Since each form has its peculiarities we
should speak of teaching monologue and teaching dialogue separately.
In teaching monologue we
can easily distinguish three stages according to the levels which constitute
the ability to speak: (1) the statement level; (2) the utterance level; (3) the
discourse level.
1. No speech is possible
until pupils learn how to make up sentences in the foreign language and how to
make statements. To develop pupils' skills in making statements the following
procedure may be suggested:
Pupils are given sentence
patterns to assimilate in connection with situations.
The sentence pattern is
filled with different words. Thus pupils can express various thoughts. For
example:
I can see a ... .
P u p i l 1: I can see a
blackboard.
P u p i 1 2: I can see a
picture.
P u p i l 3: I can see a
map, etc.
I am fond of ...
P u p i l 1: I am fond of music.
P u p i 1 2: I am fond of
classical music.
P u p i 1 3: I am fond of
pop music, etc.
We are proud of ...
P u p i l 1: We are proud
of our country.
P u p i 1 2: We are proud
of our sportsmen.
P u p i 1 3: We are proud
of our school, etc.
Pupils are invited to
perform various drill exercises within the sentence patterns given:
— substitution: I
have a book (a pen);
— extention: I have
an interesting book,
I have an interesting
book at home;
— transformation: He
has a book,
He has no book;
— completion: If I
have time I’ll ... .
Pattern practice, of course,
makes no pretence of being communication. However, pattern practice for communication
is what playing scales and arpeggios is to a musician. Each pattern will have
to be repeated many times with a great variety of changes in its contents until
the pattern becomes a habit.
Pupils make statements of
their own in connection with the situations suggested by the teacher.
Give it a name.
Teacher: We write with
it.
Pupil: It is a pencil
(pen).
Make statements on the
picture.
Teacher (silently points
to the picture of a cat)
P u p i l 1: This is
a cat.
P u p i l 2: This is
a black cat.
Say the opposite.
Teacher: I live in Gorky
Street.
Pupil: I do not live in
Gorky Street,
Teacher (pointing to the
boy): He likes to play hockey.
Pupil: I don't
like to play hockey.
When pupils are able to
make statements in the foreign language within grammar and vocabulary they have
assimilated their speech may be more complicated. They should learn to combine
statements of various sentence patterns in a logical sequence.
2. Pupils are taught how
to use different sentence patterns in an utterance about an object, a subject
offered. First they are to follow a model, and then they do it without any
help.
Teacher: Say a few
words about it. (He points to an object.)
Pupil: This is a
pencil.
The pencil is green.
It is on the table. I
like the pencil.
Or Teacher points to a
boy.
Pupil: This is a boy. His
name is Sasha. He lives in Gagarin Street.
Get information and
sum up what you have learnt from your classmates.
Teacher: She cut her
finger.
Class: Ann.
— When did she cut
it?
— Yesterday.
— What did she cut it
with?
— With a knife.
— Why did she cut
her finger?
— Because the knife
was sharp.
Pupil: Yesterday Ann cut
her finger. She cut it with a knife. The knife was sharp.
This exercise is useful
both for developing dialogic and monologic speech.
Therefore the pupil's
utterance involves-2—4 sentences which logically follow one another. At this
stage pupils learn to express their thoughts, their attitude to what they say
using various sentence patterns. Thus they learn how to put several sentences
together in one utterance about a subject, an object, etc.
3. After pupils have
learned how to say a few sentences in connection with a situation they are
prepared for speaking at discourse level. Free speech is possible provided
pupils have acquired habits and skills in making statements and in combining
them in a logical sequence. At this level pupils are asked to speak on a
picture, a set of pictures, a film-strip, a film, comment on a text they have
read or heard, make up a story of their own; of course, this being done within
the language material (grammar and vocabulary) pupils have assimilated. To help
pupils to speak the teacher supplies them with "what to speak about".
The devices used for the purpose are: visual aids which can stimulate the
pupil's speaking through visual perception of the subject to be spoken about,
including a text read; audio aids which can stimulate the pupil's speaking
through auditory perception of a stimulus; audio-visual aids when pupils can
see and hear what to speak about.[8]
The three stages in
developing pupils' speaking should take place throughout the whole course of
instruction, i. e., in junior, intermediate, and senior forms. The amount of
exercises at each level, however, must be different. In junior forms statement
level is of greater importance as a teaching point.
Rule for the teacher: In teaching monologue instruct
pupils how to make statements first, then how to combine various sentences in
one utterance and, finally, how to speak on a suggested topic.
We have already spoken
about the linguistic characteristics of dialogue. Some more should be said
about its structure.
A dialogue consists of a
series of lead-response units. The significant feature of a lead-response unit
is that the response part may, and usually does, serve in its own turn as a
fresh inducement leading to further verbal exchanges, i. e., lead ►
response ► inducement ► response. A
response unit is a unit of speech between two pauses. It may consist of more
than one sentence. But the most characteristic feature of a dialogue is that
the lead-response units are closely connected and dependent on each other. The
lead is relatively free, while the response depends on the first and does not
exist without it.
— Where is the book?
— There, on the
shelf.
In teaching dialogue we
should use pattern dialogues as they involve all features which characterize
this form of speech.
There are three stages in
learning a dialogue: (1) receptive; (2) reproductive; (3) constructive
(creative).
1. Pupils
"receive" the dialogue by ear first. They listen to the dialogue
recorded or reproduced by the teacher. The teacher helps pupils in
comprehension of the dialogue using a picture or pictures to illustrate its
contents. They listen to the dialogue a second time and then read it silently
for better understanding, paying attention to the intonation. They may listen
to the dialogue and read it again, if necessary.
2. Pupils enact the
pattern dialogue. We may distinguish three kinds of reproduction:
Immediate. Pupils reproduce the dialogue in
imitation of the speaker or the teacher while listening to it or just after
they have heard it. The teacher checks the pupils' pronunciation and intonation
in particular. The pupils are asked to learn the dialogue by heart for
homework.
Delayed. After pupils have learned the dialogue
at home, they enact the pattern dialogue in persons. Before calling on pupils
it is recommended that they should listen to the pattern dialogue recorded
again to remind them of how it "sounds".
Modified. Pupils enact the dialogue with some
modifications in its contents. They change some elements in it. The more
elements (main words and phrases) they change in the pattern the better they
assimilate the structure of the dialogue:
— Will you help me,
sonny?
— What shall I do,
Mother?
— Will you bring me
a pail of water?
— Certainly I will.
The use of pictures may
be helpful. Besides pupils use their own experience while selecting the words
for substitutions.
The work should not be
done mechanically. Pupils should speak on the situation. As a result of this work
pupils master the structure of the pattern dialogue (not only the contents), i.
e., they can use it as a model for making up dialogues of their own, that is
why pattern dialogues should be carefully selected.
The first two stages aim
at storing up patterns in pupils' memory for expressing themselves in different
situations, of course within the topics and linguistic material the syllabus
sets for each form.
3. Pupils make up
dialogues of their own. They are given a picture or a verbal situation to talk about.
This is possible provided pupils have a stock of patterns, a certain number of
phrases for starting a conversation, joining in, etc. They should use those
lead-response units they have learned in connection with the situation
suggested for a conversation.
At the third stage the
choice of stimuli is of great importance, as very often pupils cannot think
what to say, though they know how to say this or that. Therefore audio-visual
aids should be extensively utilized.
Rule for the teacher: In teaching dialogue use pattern
dialogues; make sure that your pupils go through the three stages from
receptive through reproductive to creative, supply them with the subject to
talk about.
In teaching speaking the
problem is what form of speech to begin with, and what should be the
relationship between monologue and dialogue. This problem may be solved in
different ways. Some methodologists give preference to dialogic speech in
teaching beginners, and they suggest that pupils learn first how to ask and
answer questions which is mostly characteristic of a dialogue, and how to make
up a short dialogue following a model. Others prefer monologic speech as a
starting point. Pupils are taught how to make statements, how to combine
several sentences into one utterance in connection with an object or a
situation offered.[7]
These approaches to the
problem are reflected in school textbooks now in use. A. D .Starkov and R. R.
Dixon in their textbooks prefer to begin with dialogic speech. They start by
teaching pupils how to ask various types of questions. For example:
The book is on the desk.
The book isn't under the
desk.
Is the book on the desk?
Yes, it is. (No, it isn't.)
Is the book on the desk
or under it? It's on the desk.
Where’s the book? It’s
on the desk. (Fifth Form English. Teacher's Book.)
S. K. Folomkina and E. I.
Kaar give preference to developing pupils' monologic speech. For example:
I see a pen.
I see a desk.
Pete sees a desk and a
pen.
As to the relationship
between monologue and dialogue, it should vary from stage to stage in teaching
speaking in schools. In the junior stage (5—6 forms) dialogic speech, the time
which allows the teacher to introduce new material and consolidate it in
conversation, must prevail. In the intermediate stage (7—8 forms) dialogue and
monologue must be on an equal footing.
In the senior stage (9—10
forms) monologic speech must prevail since pupils take part in discussion and,
therefore, express their thoughts in connection with a problem or retell a text
read or heard. To sum it up both forms of speech (monologue and dialogue)
should be developed side by side with preference for the one which is more
important for pupils' progress in learning a foreign language at a certain
stage.
Conclusion
Having made our work we
come to conclusion, that auding or listening and comprehension are difficult
for learners because they should discriminate speech sounds quickly, retain
them while hearing a word, a phrase, or a sentence and recognize this as a
sense unit. Pupils can easily and naturally do this in their own language and
they cannot do this in a foreign language when they start learning the
language. Pupils are very slow in grasping what they hear because they are conscious
of the linguistic forms they perceive by the ear. This results in
misunderstanding or a complete failure of understanding.
When auding a foreign
language pupils should be very attentive and think hard. They should strain
their memory and will power to keep the sequence of sounds they hear and to
decode it. Not all the pupils can cope with the difficulties entailed. The
teacher should help them by making this work easier and more interesting.
Speech is a process of
communication by means of language. Oral exercises are quite indispensable to
developing speech. However, they only prepare pupils for speaking and cannot be
considered to be “speech” as some teachers are apt to think and who are often
satisfied with oral exercises which pupils perform following the model; they
seldom use stimuli for developing pupils' auding and speaking in the target
language.
In conclusion it should
be said that prepared and unprepared speech must be developed simultaneously
from the very beginning. The relationship between prepared and unprepared
speech should very depending on the stage of learning the language. In the
junior stage prepared speech takes the lead, while in the senior stage
unprepared speech should prevail.
List of
literature
1.
Anitchkov I.,
SaakyantsV. Methods of teaching English. Moscow, 1966.- 248p.
2.
Harner Jeremy.
The practice of English language teaching. L. - New York,
1991.-296p.
3.
Potter Mike.
International issues. Teacher's book. L., 1991.- 125p.
4.
Rogova G. Methods
of teaching English. Leningrad, 1975.- 312p.
5.
Бугаев
Н.И. Обучение – это общение.// Народное образование Якутии- 1992 №2 с.37-49
6.
Загвязинский
В.И. Методология и методика дидактических исследований.- М: Педагогика, 1982
7.
Зимняя И.
А. Психологическая характеристика слушания и говорения как видов речевой
деятельности. – «Иностранные языки в школе», 1973
8.
Маслыко
Е. А. Настольная книга преподавателя иностранного языка: Справочное пособие.-
Мн.: Высшая школа, 1999.
List of
Vocabulary
1.
arpeggios- последовательное исполнение
звуков аккорда
2.
arranging- приводить в порядок;
расставлять
3.
aud- аудировать
4.
audience- публика;
зрители
5.
audio-visual aids-
аудиовизуальные средства обучения
7.
complete failure- полный провал
8.
conversational
tags- обрывки
речи
9.
Delayed- отложенный, отсроченный
10.
drilling
pronunciation-
отработанное произношение
11.
postpositions- помещение, расположение позади
12.
Ensure conditions- гарантированные условия
13.
eye-learners- ученики с визуальной памятью
14.
exactness- точность; аккуратность,
пунктуальность
15.
feed back- заднее содержание
16.
flexible- гибкий; гнущийся; мягкий,
эластичный
17.
fluency- плавность; беглость
18.
Free speech- свободная речь
19.
grammar exercises
– упражнения на
грамматику
20.
Immediate- прямой, непосредственный
21.
interpreter- переводчик
22.
interlocutor- собеседник
23.
lead-response
units-приемистая
единица
24.
Linguistic
peculiarities-
лингвистическая особенность
25.
logical sequence- логическая последовательность
26.
manifold
repetitions-
многократные репетиции
27.
mechanical drill exercises- механически отработанные упражнения
28.
methodologists- методисты
29.
misuse a preposition- неправильно использованный предлог
30.
Modified- усовершенствованный
31.
native speakers- носитель языка
32.
plenty of
preliminary exercises- достаток подготовки
33.
preference- предпочтение; преимущество
34.
prevail- восторжествовать, одержать
победу; достичь цели
35.
pupils' errors- заблуждения ученика
36.
pupils' skills- навык ученика
37.
rearranging- перестройка; реконфигурация
38.
reception- приём, получение, принятие
39.
reproduction- воспроизведение,
размножение; репродуцирование
40.
senior stage- старшие классы
41.
stock of patterns- запас образцов
42.
syllabus- программа (курса, лекций и
т. д.)
43.
target language- цель языка
44.
time-consuming- отнимающий много времени, связанный
с тратой времени; трудоёмкий (о работе, занятии и т. п.)
45.
teacher's
disposal-
расположение учителя
46.
teacher's
supervision-
надзор учителя
47.
to
"accumulate"- аккумулировать, накапливать;
48.
undue
talkativeness-
чрезмерная болтливость
49.
utterance- выражение в словах,
произнесение
50.
Visual
"props"-
зрительная опора