Tragic heroes in modern English literature
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. SOCIAL A CULTURAL CONTEXT IN THE
FIRST HALF OF THE TWENTY CENTURE AS A BACKGROUND FOR A NEW TRAGIC HERO
1.1
Social and litery theories explaning place of the human being
1.2
The last generation as a new representatives of the tragic hero
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER
II. THE TRAGIC HEROES OF ARTHUR MILLER BOOKS
2.1
The image of tragic hero in the works of Arthur Miller
2.2 E.
Heminqway’s “Fiesta” as a new approach to the tragic hero
2.3
The tragic hero as representation problem in the works E. Heminqway and Arthur
Miller
CONCLUSION
GENERAL
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Our work is devoted to the analysis of the novels by Arthur Miller
and E. Heminqway. The plots of there novel generally revolve around the subject
of tragedy of the main heroes and lay emphasis especially on its tremendous
importance.
The aim of our work is to reveal the tragedy of people in the
novels by A. Miller and E. Heminqway.
The hypothesis of our work is that the writers in their books
represent the tragic hero.
The
aim has defined the next tasks:
- to research the Social
and litery theories explaning place of the human being;
- to investigate the last
generation as a new representatives of the tragic hero;
- to investigate the image of tragic hero
in the works of Arthur Miller and E. Heminqway’s “Fiesta” as a new approach to
the tragic hero;
- to research the tragic hero as
representation problem in the works E. Heminqway and Arthur Miller.
Object of research in the given work is A.
Miller and E. Heminqway.
Subject is the tragedy of the main heroes in A. Miller and E. Heminqway.
The practical value is that it can be useful for anybody who is
interested in life and work of the novels by A. Miller and E. Heminqway.
While
making our research we used the works of such linguists as Vinokur G.O.,
Suvorov S.P., Arnold I.V. and many others. During our work we used the works on
the translation theory of such linguists as Levitskaya T.R., Fiterman A.M.,
Komissarov V.N., Alimov V.V., Shveytser A.D., Garbovskiy N.K., Dmitrieva L.F.,
Galperin I.R., Arnold I.V., Yakusheva I.V., van Deik, Kolshanskiy and others.
We used also the articles from the the periodical editions.
Concerning
the aim and the tasks we have used such method as a descriptive one, the method
of the experience, the contextual method and the comparative method. These
methods weren’t used as the isolated methods, they were used in their complex
to satisfy the aim and the task in the best way.
CHAPTER I. SOCIAL A CULTURAL
CONTEXT IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE TWENTY CENTURE AS A BACKGROUND FO RENEW TRAGIC
HERO
1.1.
Social and litery theories explaning place of the human being
The term ‘Tragedy’ is used in a common parlance, and yet it cannot
be reduced to a formula, for it has so many shades that it actually defies a
logical analysis. An American critic has admirable summed up Tragedy in a few
words: “Courage and inevitable defeat.” Now-a-days we can never think of a
Tragedy without an unhappy ending. But the Greeks did. Philoctetes by
Sophocles, for example, has no unhappy ending. There is a similarity between
the ancient Greek Tragedy and a modern Tragedy. The hero and certain other
characters are caught in a difficult situation.
Tragedy is a form of art based on human suffering that offers its audience pleasure. While most cultures have developed
forms that provoke this paradoxical response, tragedy refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important
role historically in the self-definition of Western civilization. That
tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used
to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and
historical continuity "the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one
cultural form; Hellenes
and Christians, in a common
activity," as Raymond
Williams puts it.[3] From its obscure
origins in the theatres of Athens 2500 years ago, from which there survives
only a fraction of the work of Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Euripides, through its
singular articulations in the works of Shakespeare,
Lope de Vega, Racine, or Schiller,
to the more recent naturalistic
tragedy of Strindberg,
Beckett's modernist meditations on
death, loss and suffering, or Müller's postmodernist reworkings of
the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural
experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.[4] A long line of philosophers--which
includes Plato, Aristotle, Saint
Augustine, Voltaire,
Hume, Diderot, Hegel, Schopenhauer,
Kierkegaard,
Nietzsche,
Freud, Benjamin and Deleuze--have analysed,
speculated upon and criticised the tragic form.[5] In the wake of
Aristotle's Poetics
(335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general, where the tragic
divides against epic
and lyric, or at the scale of
the drama, where tragedy is opposed to comedy. In the modern era, tragedy has
also been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic and epic theatre. The character and plot in most of Tragedies are linked up. In
Greek Tragedies fate played a very important part, but after the Renaissance
character became more and more prominent. In some of Shakespearian Tragedies,
despite the importance of character, the motivation of action comes from the
supernatural forces or even external circumstances. In modern Tragedies, the
hero is often the victim of social forces.
The origins of tragedy are obscure, but the art form certainly
developed out of the poetic and religious traditions of ancient Greece. Its roots
may be traced more specifically to the chants and dances called dithyrambs, which honoured
the Greek
god Dionysus (later known to
the Romans as Bacchus). These drunken,
ecstatic performances were said to have been created by the satyrs, half-goat beings who surrounded
Dionysus in his revelry.
Phrynichus,
son of Polyphradmon and pupil of Thespis, was one of the
earliest of the Greek tragedians. "The
honour of introducing Tragedy in its later acceptation was reserved for a
scholar of Thespis in 511 BCE, Polyphradmon's son, Phrynichus; he dropped the
light and ludicrous cast of the original drama and dismissing Bacchus and the
Satyrs formed his plays from the more grave and elevated events recorded in
mythology and history of his country", and some of the ancients regarded
him as the real founder of tragedy.[7] He gained his first
poetical victory in 511 BCE. However, P.W. Buckham asserts (quoting August Wilhelm von Schlegel) that Aeschylus was the inventor
of tragedy. "Aeschylus is to be considered as the creator of Tragedy: in
full panoply she sprung from his head, like Pallas from the head of Jupiter. He
clad her with dignity, and gave her an appropriate stage; he was the inventor
of scenic pomp, and not only instructed the chorus in singing and dancing, but
appeared himself as an actor. He was the first that expanded the dialogue, and
set limits to the lyrical part of tragedy, which, however, still occupies too
much space in his pieces. Aristotle is very clear in his Poetics
that tragedy proceeded from the authors of the Dithyramb.[9] There is some dissent
to the dithyrambic origins of tragedy mostly based in the differences between
the shapes of their choruses and styles of dancing. A common descent from pre-Hellenic fertility and
burial rites has been suggested. Nietzsche discussed the
origins of Greek tragedy in his early book, The
Birth of Tragedy (1872).
Aristotle defined Tragedy as “a representation of
an action, which is serious; complete in itself, and of a certain length; it is
expressed in speech made beautiful in different ways in different parts of the
play; it is acted, not narrated; and by exciting pity and fear it gives a
healthy relief to such emotions.” [12, 121].
Tragedy must be spoudaious i.e. noble, serious, and elevated. The Greek root for Tragedy is
tragoidia, which means something serious, but not necessarily a drama with an
unhappy ending. Plato has called Homer’s Odyssey a Tragedy, though it is not drama. Seriousness of subject is what
really matters.
Tragedy, F. L. Lucas maintains, had three
different meanings in the three periods of literary history. In ancient times,
a Tragedy meant a serious drama; in medieval times, a Tragedy meant a story
with an unhappy ending; and a modern Tragedy is a drama with an unhappy ending.
“Tragedy is an imitation of an action.” And
‘action’ again gives rise to a lot of troubles. A novel or an Epic is narrated,
while a drama, be it a Tragedy or a Comedy, is acted. Can there be action
without narration? The answer is obvious. The Greek Dramaturgy did not allowed
any act of violence on the stage. Even a romantic playwright like Shakespeare
had some of the murders reported by messengers. Lucas rightly points out, “Not
everything permits itself to be acted. ‘Let not Medea slay her sons before the
audience’: things like that, at least, on the Greek stage were relegated to a
Messenger’s speech.”
With regard to “an action which is complete in
itself,” the controversy has been raging for a long time. What is actually
meant by completeness? An action having a beginning, a middle, and an end is
said to be complete. T. R. Henn defines ‘completeness’ as totality which
Matthew Arnold later called ‘architectonice’. Aristotle himself, in different
chapter of the Poetics, has saught to define ‘completeness’. If the play begins
abruptly, the reader or the audience may not understand what it is about. Let
not the reader ask “What happens then?” The work of art should be rounded off.
The Greek art, whether plastic or non-plastic, always insisted on symmetry [12,
127]. Along with symmetry there is frugality. The details are not extraneous.
On the contrary, it is an organic unity. If there are details, they are not ornamental,
but functional, Aristotle means by ‘completeness’ the organic unity.
The organic unity is linked up with the size of
the work of art. If the art has no appropriate limit or size, it loses its
symmetry. “Whatever is beautiful, whether it be a living creature or an object
made up of various parts, must necessarily not only have its parts properly
ordered, but also be of an appropriate size for beauty is banned up with size
and order.” If a thing is a thousand miles long, that will also not be beautiful,
for the whole thing cannot be taken in all at once, and the unity of the art
will be lost sight of Aristotle while speaking of the Plot, again emphasis that
the plot of a play, being but representation of an action, must present it as
an organic whole. Aristotle says that the Tragedies “should center upon a
single action, whole and complete, and having a beginning, a middle and an end,
so that like a single complete organism the poem may produce a special kind of
pleasure.”
Aristotle emphasizes that the Tragedy should be
“expressed in speech made beautiful.” But in the modern age, Tragedies have
become realistic, and therefore, the language has become drab and colourless.
Another part of Aristotle’s definition of Tragedy is that it should be “acted,
not narrated.” This also is a bone of contention.
In modernist
literature, the definition of tragedy has become less precise. The
most fundamental change has been the rejection of Aristotle's dictum that true
tragedy can only depict those with power and high status [13, 78]. Arthur Miller's essay
'Tragedy and the Common Man' exemplifies the modern belief that tragedy may
also depict ordinary people in domestic surroundings. British playwright Howard Barker has argued
strenuously for the rebirth of tragedy in the contemporary theatre, most
notably in his volume Arguments for a Theatre. "You emerge from
tragedy equipped against lies. After the musical, you're anybody's fool,"
he observes.[13]
Although the most important American playwrights - Eugene O'Neill, Tennessee
Williams and Arthur Miller - wrote tragedies, the rarity of tragedy
in the American theater may be owing in part to a certain form of idealism,
often associated with Americans, that man is captain of his fate, a notion
exemplified in the plays of Clyde Fitch
and George
S. Kaufmann. Arthur Miller, however, was a successful writer of
American tragic plays, among them The Crucible, All My Sons and Death
of a Salesman.
1.2.
The last generation as a new representatives of the tragic hero
Tragic hero is the main character in a tragedy who makes an error in his or her actions
that leads to his or her downfall. Tragic heroes appear in the dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Seneca, Marlowe,
Shakespeare,
Webster, Marston, Corneille, Racine, Goethe, Schiller,
Kleist, Strindberg, and many other
writers.
Some common traits characteristic of a tragic protagonist: [10, 117]
·
The hero discovers his fate by his own actions, not by things
happening to him.
·
The hero sees and understands his doom, and that his fate was
revealed by his own actions.
·
The hero's downfall is understood by Aristotle to arouse pity
and fear.
·
The hero is physically or spiritually wounded by his experiences,
often resulting in his death.
·
A tragic hero is often of noble birth, or rises to noble standing
(King Arthur, Okonkwo, the main character
in Achebe's novel, Things Fall Apart.)
·
The hero learns something from his/her mistake.
·
The hero is faced with a serious decision.
·
The suffering of the hero is meaningful.
·
There may sometimes be supernatural involvement (in Shakespeare's Julius
Caesar, Caesar is warned of his death via Calpurnia's vision and
Brutus is warned of his impending death by the ghost of Caesar).
·
The Shakespearean tragic hero dies at some point in the story, for
example Macbeth. Shakespeare's
characters illustrate that tragic heroes are neither fully good nor fully evil.
Through the development of the plot a hero's mistakes, rather than his
quintessential goodness or evil, lead to his tragic downfall.
·
The hero of classical tragedies is almost universally male. Later
tragedies (like Shakespeare's Antony
and Cleopatra) introduced the female tragic hero. Portrayals of
female tragic heroes are notable because they are rare.
Famous tragic heroes
Macbeth is the main character in Shakespeare’s Macbeth (1607?). The
character was based upon accounts found in Holinshed's
Chronicles (1587), a history of Britain. Macbeth is a Scottish noble
and a valiant military man. At the urging of his wife, he commits regicide and
becomes King of Scotland. He thereafter lives in anxiety and fear, unable to
rest or to trust his nobles. He leads a reign of terror until defeated by the
rightful heir to the throne in the final act.
Othello is a character in Shakespeare's Othello (c.1601-1604). The
character's origin is traced to the tale, "Un Capitano Moro" in Gli
Hecatommithi by Giovanni Battista Giraldi Cinthio.
There, he is simply referred to as the Moor.
Othello is a brave and competent soldier of advanced years and Moorish background in the service of the
Venetian Republic. He elopes with Desdemona,
the beautiful daughter of a respected Venetian senator. After being deployed to
Cyprus, Othello is manipulated by his ensign, Iago, into believing Desdemona is an
adultress. Othello murders her before killing himself.
Othello was first mentioned in a Revels account of 1604 when the
play was performed on November 1 at Whitehall Palace with Richard Burbage almost
certainly Othello's first interpreter. Modern notable performers of the role
include Paul Robeson, Orson Welles, Richard
Burton, James
Earl Jones, and Laurence Olivier.
King Lear is a tragedy by William
Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1603 and 1606,
and is considered one of his greatest works. The play is based on the legend of
Leir of Britain, a
mythological pre-Roman
king. It has been widely adapted for stage and screen, with the part of Lear
being played by many of the world's most accomplished actors.
There are two distinct versions of the play: The True Chronicle of
the History of the Life and Death of King Lear and His Three Daughters, which
appeared in quarto
in 1608, and The Tragedy of King Lear, which appeared in the First Folio in 1623, a more
theatrical version. The two texts are commonly printed in a conflated version,
although many modern editors have argued that each version has its individual
integrity.[1]
After the Restoration
the play was often modified by theatre practitioners who disliked its dark and
depressing tone, but since the 19th century it has been regarded as one of
Shakespeare's supreme achievements. The tragedy is particularly noted for its
probing observations on the nature of human suffering and kinship.
Oedipus (pronounced /ˈɛdəpəs/ in American English or /ˈiːdəpəs/
in British
English; Greek:
Οἰδίπους Oidípous meaning
"swollen-footed") was a mythical Greek king of Thebes. He fulfilled a
prophecy that said he would kill his father and marry his mother, and thus
brought disaster on his city and family. This legend has been retold in many
versions, and was used by Sigmund
Freud to name the Oedipus complex.
Marcus Junius Brutus (85–42 BC) or Quintus Servilius Caepio
Brutus, often referred to simply as Brutus, was a politician of the late Roman Republic. He is best
known in modern times for taking a leading role in the assassination conspiracy
against Julius
Caesar in an attempt to take control of the Republic.[1]
Prince Hamlet is the protagonist in Shakespeare's tragedy
Hamlet. He is the Prince of
Denmark, nephew to the usurping Claudius and son of the
previous King of Denmark, Old Hamlet.
Throughout the play he struggles with whether, and how, to avenge the murder of
his father, and struggles with his own sanity along the way. By the end of the
tragedy, Hamlet has caused the deaths of Claudius, Polonius, Laertes
and his two childhood friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. He is also indirectly involved
in the deaths of his love Ophelia
(drowning) and of his mother Gertrude (poisoned by
mistake). Hamlet himself is the final character to die in the play.
Antigone (pronounced /ænˈtɪɡəni/; Greek Ἀντιγόνη)
is the name of two different women in Greek mythology. The name
may be taken to mean "unbending", coming from "anti-"
(against, opposed to) and "-gon / -gony" (corner, bend, angle; ex:
polygon), but has also been suggested to mean "opposed to motherhood"
or "in place of a mother" based from the root gonē, "that
which generates" (related: gonos, "-gony"; seed, semen).
Romeo Montague is one of the fictional protagonists in William
Shakespeare's Romeo
and Juliet. He is the heir of the Montague family of Verona, and falls in love and dies with Juliet Capulet, the
daughter of the Capulet house.
Juliet Capulet is one of the title characters in William
Shakespeare's tragedy Romeo and Juliet. The story
has a long history that precedes Shakespeare himself. The heroine's name was
Giulietta in some earlier versions. It had become Juliet by the time Arthur
Brooke wrote his narrative poem. Juliet is the beautiful daughter of
a generous and very wealthy family in Verona, headed by Lord and Lady Capulet.
She was their oldest child. She apparently had younger siblings at some point,
but by the time of the play, she was their only surviving child. Juliet is the
sole heir to the Capulets. As a child, she was cared for by her Nurse,
who is now her confidante,
or Juliet's caretaker. As the story occurs, Juliet is approaching her
fourteenth birthday (her sixteenth in Arthur Brooke's poem). She was born on
"Lammas Eve at night,"
so Juliet's birthday is July 31 (1.3.19). Her birthday is "a fortnight hence",
putting the action of the play in mid-July (1.3.17).
Shakespeare's Juliet was very young; her father states that she
"hath not seen the change of fourteen years" (1.2.9). In many
cultures and time periods, women did and do marry and bear children at such a
young age. However, in Shakespeare's England, most women were at
least 21 before they did so. Romeo and Juliet is a play about Italian families. The
average English playgoer in Shakespeare's audience had never met an Italian
person, and it was commonly thought that they were quite exotic, the Italian
male passionate and emotional, and the Italian female precocious and quite
ready to become a mother by thirteen. Lady Capulet had given birth to Juliet by
the time she had reached Juliet's age: "By my count, I was your mother
much upon these years that you are now a maid" (1.3.74-75).
The play celebrates youth while pointing out its impulsiveness,
passion, and idealism; qualities which contribute to the tragedy. The
adolescent infatuation of the lovers becomes elevated to the status of sacred
love. The sacred lovers were reunited on the same deathbed. Their families had
both realized what they had done by separating the two unborn star crossed
lovers. The Capulets and Montagues were reunited and their fighting
discontinued. [21, 132].
In Greek
mythology, Heracles or Herakles (pronounced /ˈhɛrəkliːz/ HER-ə-kleez) meaning "glory of Hera", or "Glorious through
Hera" Alcides or Alcaeus (original name) ("Ἥρα + κλέος,
Ἡρακλῆς)" was a divine hero, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon and
great-grandson (and half-brother) of Perseus. He was the
greatest of the Greek heroes, a paragon of masculinity, the ancestor of royal clans
who claimed to be Heracleidae
and a champion of the Olympian
order against chthonic
monsters. In Rome
and the modern West, he is known as Hercules, with whom the
later Roman Emperors, in
particular Commodus and Maximian, often identified
themselves. The Romans adopted the Greek version of his life and works
essentially unchanged, but added anecdotal detail of their own, some of it
linking the hero with the geography of the Central Mediterranean. Details of
his cult
were adapted to Rome as well.
Extraordinary strength, courage, ingenuity, and
sexual prowess with both males and females were among his characteristic
attributes. Although he was not as clever as the likes of Odysseus or Nestor,
Heracles used his wits on several occasions when his strength did not suffice,
such as when laboring for the king Augeas
of Elis, wrestling the giant Antaeus, or tricking Atlas into taking the sky
back onto his shoulders. Together with Hermes he was the patron and protector
of gymnasia and palaestrae.
His iconographic attributes are the lion skin and the club. These qualities did
not prevent him from being regarded as a playful figure who used games to relax
from his labors and played a great deal with children. By conquering dangerous
archaic forces he is said to have "made the world safe for mankind"
and to be its benefactor. Heracles was an extremely passionate and emotional
individual, capable of doing both great deeds for his friends (such as
wrestling with Thanatos on behalf of Prince
Admetus, who had regaled
Heracles with his hospitality, or restoring his friend Tyndareus to the throne of Sparta after he was overthrown) and
being a terrible enemy who would wreak horrible vengeance on those who crossed
him, as Augeas, Neleus and Laomedon all found out to
their cost.
In Greek
mythology, Achilles (Ancient Greek: Ἀχιλλεύς)
was a Greek hero of the Trojan War, the central character and the
greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad.
Achilles also has the attributes of being the most handsome of the
heroes assembled against Troy,[1] as well as the best.
Later legends (beginning with a poem by Statius in the first
century AD) state that Achillies was invulnerable in all of his body except for
his heel. Legend states that
Achilles was semi-immortal, however his heel was vulnerable. Since he died due
to a poisoned arrow shot into his heel, the "Achilles' heel" has
come to mean a person's principal weakness.
CONCLUSION
We came to a conclusion that the term ‘Tragedy’ is used in a
common parlance, and yet it cannot be reduced to a formula, for it has so many
shades that it actually defies a logical analysis. An American critic has
admirable summed up Tragedy in a few words: “Courage and inevitable defeat.”
Now-a-days we can never think of a Tragedy without an unhappy ending. But the
Greeks did. Philoctetes by Sophocles, for example, has no unhappy ending. There
is a similarity between the ancient Greek Tragedy and a modern Tragedy. The
hero and certain other characters are caught in a difficult situation.
Tragedy is a form of art based on human suffering that offers its audience pleasure. The origins of
tragedy are obscure, but the art form certainly developed out of the poetic and
religious traditions of ancient
Greece. Its roots may be traced more specifically to the chants and
dances called dithyrambs, which honoured
the Greek
god Dionysus (later known to
the Romans as Bacchus). These drunken,
ecstatic performances were said to have been created by the satyrs, half-goat beings who surrounded
Dionysus in his revelry.
Tragic hero is the main character in a tragedy who makes an error in his or her actions
that leads to his or her downfall. Tragic heroes appear in the dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Seneca, Marlowe,
Shakespeare,
Webster, Marston, Corneille, Racine, Goethe, Schiller,
Kleist, Strindberg, and many other
writers.
CHAPTER II. THE TRAGIC HEROES OF ARTHUR MILLER BOOKS
2.1 The image of tragic hero in the works of Arthur Miller
Act one begins with Reverend Parris praying over her daughter,
Betty Parris, who lies unconscious on her bed. Through conversations between
Reverend Parris and his niece Abigail Williams, and between several girls, the
audience learns that these girls, including Abigail and Betty, were engaged in
occultic activities in the forest lead by Tituba, Parris’ slave from Barbados. Parris
caught them and jumped from a bush startling the girls. Betty fainted and had
not recovered. During this session, Abigail drank chicken blood to kill
Elizabeth Proctor. She tells the girls that she will kill anyone who mutters a
word about what happened. The townspeople do not know exactly what the girls
were doing but there are rumors of witchcraft.
John Proctor enters the room where Betty lies faint. Abigail is
still in there and she tries to seduce him. Proctor is a farmer who has had an
affair with Abigail a while ago, but now he wants to forget it [11, 127].
Reverend John Hale is summoned to look upon Betty and the research
the incident. He is an expert in occultic phenomena and he is eager to show his
knowledge. He questions Abigail who accuses Tituba as being a witch. Tituba,
afraid of being hanged, confesses faith in God and accuses Goody Good and Goody
Osborne of witchcraft. Abigail and Betty, who has woken up, claim to have been
bewitched and confess faith in God. They name several other people whom they claim
they saw with the Devil.
Act two begins eight days after the discussion at Parris’ house. Between
act one and act two, Deputy Governor Dansforth came to Salem to oversee the
court proceedings. Fourteen people have been arrested for witchcraft, and there
is talk of hanging. Elizabeth Proctor asks John to go to the court and testify
against Abigail and the other girls. John doesn’t want to get involved. There
is tension between Elizabeth and John since Elizabeth has not forgiven John for
the affair. Marry Warren enters. She was in court testifying against the
townspeople. She gives Elizabeth a doll which she has made in court. In the
middle of their discussion, Hale enters to question John and Elizabeth,
suspicious of witchcraft. Later, Giles Corey and Francis Nurse enter to seek
advice after both their wives had been arrested. Next, the marshal arrives with
a warrant for Elizabeth’s arrest. Elizabeth was accused by Abigail for stabbing
Abigail with a needle through a doll. John Proctor protests but Elizabeth is
taken away in chains. Proctor demands Mary that she goes to court and testify
against the girls. He vows that he will fight the proceedings, even if it means
confessing his own adultery.
Act three takes place in court. Francis Nurse, Giles Corey,
and John Proctor present their case against the girls to Deputy Governor
Dansforth and Judge Hathorne. Proctor presents a petition signed by 91 people
testifying to the good character of their wives, and Dansforth issues warrants
for the questioning of all of them. Corey charges Putnam on inciting his
daughter to accuse Corey of witchcraft in order get his land. Corey has a
witness but will not name him for fear of getting the man arrested. Corey is
arrested because of contempt of the court.
Proctor presents his case and a deposition by Mary Warren
saying that she never saw the devil or any spirits. Abigail says that Mary is
lying and she and the girls pretend to be bewitched by Mary. Proctor,
frustrated at the gullibility of the court, grabs Abigail by the hair and
exclaims to everyone that she is a whore confessing that he had an affair with
Abigail. Elizabeth is brought in to be questioned about whether this is true. Elizabeth
tells the court that John Proctor never had an affair with Abigail in order to
save his name, however, this destroys Proctor’s testimony. Mary crumbles under
the peer pressure and returns to Abigail’s side, accusing Proctor of being a
witch [11, 139].
Act four begins in prison where Sarah Good and Tituba wait to be
hanged. They have gone insane and believe that Satan will take them both to
Barbados.
There is rumors of an uprising in a nearby town due to
similar witch trials. The townspeople are afraid of a similar riot in Salem.
Hale and Parris are now terrified. They go to visit the innocent
people in the jail and beg them to make false confessions in order to save
their lives. Hale believes that the blood of the people who are being hanged is
on his hands. He asks Elizabeth, who is now pregnant, to tell John to confess
to save his life but Elizabeth will not. While Elizabeth is talking to John,
she tells him that she has forgiven him of his affair and tells his that he can
do as he will. John Proctor confesses that he is a witch, but will not say the
others are. After a few moments, Proctor is fed up with the court, tears up his
confession, and goes out to be hanged with Rebecca Nurse. Hales pleads that
Elizabeth ask Proctor to confess, but she says, “He has his goodness now. God
forbid I take it from him!”
In The Crucible all the event flow naturally from one event to the
next. Everything happens naturally from the natures of the characters. The fact
that the story isn’t contrived, and even more that it is based on a true story
is interesting. The result is so unbelievable. The incident begins with the
girls dancing in the forest and snowballs into a huge witch hunt. The plot was
exciting. There was sufficient conflict to keep my interest aroused. There are
a lot of tension and suspense in the story [14, 56]. It covers basic human
instincts and qualities. It shows the human necessity for survival, and the
lengths at which a person will go to save his life. There is the idea of honor
and truth. Proctor tries to keep his reputation but gives it up to reveal the
truth. Through his struggle he achieves righteousness. All these things keep
the plot moving. Proctor’s relationship with Elizabeth can be seen to grow and
mature. He continually grows more pure in Elizabeth’s sight until she is able
to forgive him in act four. Proctor’ character also improves. He doesn’t want
to get involved in the court proceedings in act two but stands up for the truth
in act four.
Each character has his own distinct quality. Most characters are
distinctly good or evil though few characters are really developed. The reader
is only able to see one side of each character. Even John Proctor, the main
character isn’t as developed as it could be. This is probably due to the
restrictions of time and narration of this particular genre.
Parris - A minister in Salem who is more worried about his own
reputation than the town or the truth.
Betty - Parris’ daughter. She is faint in the beginning of the
play and later accuses various people for witchcraft.
Abigail - Parris’ niece and Proctor’s mistress. She is the leader
of the girls who accuses people of witchcraft during the trial.
Tituba - Parris’ slave from Barbados. She is the first accused
with being accused by Abigail.
Mrs. Putnam - Wife of Thomas Putnam. She first plants the idea of
Betty being bewitched.
Ruth - Daughter of the Putnams. She is one of Abigail's friends
who accuses people at the trial.
Mercy Lewis - Putnams’ servant. She is also involved in the
accusations of the witches.
John Proctor - Main character. He is a good man, but has committed
adultery with Abigail.
Elizabeth Proctor - John Proctor’s wife. She is an upright woman
who is accused of being a witch. She couldn’t forgive Proctor for adultery
until just before he died.
Mary Warren - Proctor’s servant. She is one of Abigail’s friends
and plants evidence on Elizabeth.
Reverend Hale - Self proclaimed expert on witchcraft. He is a
minister who at first believes the girls accusations but eventually sees the
evil in the court.
Deputy Governor Dansforth - Deputy Governor of Massachusetts who
believes the testimony of the girls despite evidence to the contrary. He works
more to keep the reputation of the court than to seek justice.
Judge Hathorne - Judge presiding over the witch trials.
Rebecca Nurse - Respected, upright wife of Francis nurse. She is
accused of witchcraft.
Francis Nurse - Rebecca’s Husband. He had land disputes with the
Putnams.
Giles Corey - Old cranky villager who accidentally causes his wife
to be accused.
Sarah Good - She is an accused witch who becomes insane while
awaiting her hanging.
Susanna - One of Abigail’s friends who takes part in accusing the
villagers.
Cheever - He arrests the witches.
Herrick - Also arrests the witches. Is the jail keeping.
Hopkins - Messenger.
The play takes place in Salem, Massachusetts during the 17
century. Since this story is based on a true story, the setting is real. The
fact that the story takes place during the 17 century is important. The
community needed to be superstitious and gullible in order for this incident to
actually happen. Also, the event needed to be in a Puritan society to have such
an aversion to witches. People in the twentieth and even the nineteenth
centuries would be too skeptical about the supernatural to believe the girls
[14. 78]. Also, they would be likely to dismiss the act of dancing in the
forest as just a little game.
Miller’s style is very simple. He uses simple sentences and words
which are easy to understand. He brings out the evil quality of Abigail and the
other girls and also the gullibility of the judges. His style is easy to
understand and should be in order to be successful as a play. While using the
simple style, Miller doesn’t take anything away from the suspense in the plot. The
dialogues of his character are like actual speech. His words are used
effectively and doesn’t include anything not necessary for making a good play. Many
clever figurative devices are used. For example, Abigail says that John
“sweated like a stallion.” The writing is really that memorable since it was
not really written as prose or poetry. However, certain images as the one
previously mentioned are hard to forget.
The theme of the story was rising over adversity, and standing for
the truth even to death. This is the theme for many stories and is always an
exciting one. John, in the beginning, wanted to keep distant from the trials. He
did not want to have a part, whether good or bad. When Elizabeth was arrested,
he was forced to become part of it [3, 145]. He went to court first to set his
wife free but after watching the proceedings, he saw that the evil was not only
being done to his own wife but many others like his wife. As a result, he
worked even harder to free the other innocent people, getting himself arrested.
Despite this drawback, he did not give up. He had the chance to free himself if
he testified against the others but he realized that this would be wrong, and
even though he wanted to free himself, he would not if it meant bringing
trouble upon others. He cleansed himself at the trial, standing for what he
knew was right and died a righteous person. Though he stayed away from church,
he became more pure than the common Puritans, dying as a martyr like the
original apostles. He learned what truth meant through his suffering.
Through Proctor’s struggle, Miller displays the struggles within
each of our own hearts. Many times we have witnessed some wrong happening to
some other person and wished not to get involved. However, sometimes, like
Proctor, there might be something that forces us in. Would we be quit after
only saving our wife like Proctor could have done, or would we go for the
entire community as Proctor did?
The
action of the play is set in August 1947, in the mid-west of the U.S.A. The
events depicted occur between Sunday morning and a little after two o'clock the
following morning.
Joe Keller, the chief character, is a man who loves his family
above all else, and has sacrificed everything, including his honour, in his
struggle to make the family prosperous. He is now sixty-one. He has lost one
son in the war, and is keen to see his remaining son, Chris, marry. Chris
wishes to marry Ann, the former fiancée of his brother, Larry. Their
mother, Kate, believes Larry still to be alive. It is this belief which has
enabled her, for three and a half years, to support Joe by concealing her
knowledge of a dreadful crime he has committed.
Arthur Miller, the playwright, found the idea for Joe's crime in a
true story, which occurred during the second world war: a manufacturer
knowingly shipped out defective parts for tanks. These had suffered mechanical
failures which had led to the deaths of many soldiers. The fault was
discovered, and the manufacturer convicted. In All My Sons, Miller examines the
morality of the man who places his narrow responsibility to his immediate
family above his wider responsibility to the men who rely on the integrity of
his work.
Three and a half years before the events of the play, Larry Keller
was reported missing in action, while flying a mission off the coast of China.
His father, Joe Keller, was head of a business which made aero
engine parts. When, one night, the production line began to turn out cracked
cylinder heads, the night foreman alerted Joe's deputy manager, Steve Deever as
he arrived at work. Steve telephoned Joe at home, to ask what to do. Worried by
the lost production and not seeing the consequences of his decision, Joe told
Steve to weld over the cracks. He said that he would take responsibility for
this, but could not come in to work, as he had influenza. Several weeks later
twenty-one aeroplanes crashed on the same day, killing the pilots.
Investigation revealed the fault in the cylinder heads, and Steve
and Joe were arrested and convicted. On appeal, Joe denied Steve's (true)
version of events, convinced the court he knew nothing of what had happened,
and was released from prison. Before his last flight, Larry wrote to his fiancée,
Ann, Steve's daughter. He had read of his father's and Steve's arrest. Now he
was planning suicide [6, 122].
Three and a half years later, Ann has told no-one of this letter.
Kate Keller knows her husband to be guilty of the deaths of the pilots and has
convinced herself that Larry is alive. She will not believe him dead, as this
involves the further belief that Joe has caused his own son's death, an
intolerable thought. She expects Larry to return, and keeps his room exactly as
it was when he left home. She supports Joe's deception. In return she demands
his support for her hope that Larry will come back. Ann and her brother,
George, have disowned their father, believing him guilty. But George has gone
at last to visit his father in jail, and Steve has persuaded him of the true
course of events.
The play opens on the following (Sunday) morning; by sheer
coincidence, Ann has come to visit the Kellers. For two years, Larry's brother,
Chris, has written to her. Now he intends to propose to her, hence the
invitation. She is in love with him and has guessed his intention. On the
Saturday night there is a storm; a tree, planted as a memorial to Larry, is
snapped by the wind. Kate wakes from a dream of Larry and, in the small hours,
enters the garden to find the tree broken [4, 111].
Western drama originates in the Greek tragedies
of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides, all of whom wrote in Athens in the 5th
century B.C. In these plays the tragic hero or protagonist ( = first or most important
actor) commits an offence, often unknowingly. He (occasionallly she) must then
learn his fault, suffer and perhaps die. In this way, the gods are vindicated
(shown to be just) and the moral order of the universe restored. (This is a
gross simplification of an enormous subject.)
These plays, and those of Shakespeare two thousand years later,
are about kings, dukes or great generals. Why? Because in their day, these
individuals were thought to embody or represent the whole people. Nowadays, we
do not see even kings in this way. When writers want to show a person who
represents a nation or class, they typically invent a fictitious “ordinary”
person, the Man in the Street or Joe Public. In Joe Keller, Arthur Miller
creates just such a representative type. Joe is a very ordinary man, decent,
hard-working and charitable, a man no-one could dislike. But, like the
protagonist of the ancient drama, he has a flaw or weakness. This, in turn,
causes him to act wrongly. He is forced to accept responsibility - his suicide
is necessary to restore the moral order of the universe, and allow his beloved
son, Chris, to live, free from guilt.
The play has two narrative strands which finally meet. These are:
·
Chris's and Ann's attempt to persuade Kate that Larry is dead, so
they can marry. Joe wishes to support them, but sees that he cannot;
·
the attempt by George, then by Chris, to find out the truth of
what happened in Joe's factory in the autumn of 1943.
A slip of Kate's tongue tells George of Joe's guilt, but he leaves
without persuading Chris. Chris and Ann insist on marrying and Joe supports
them. This drives Kate (who sees this as a betrayal) to tell Chris the truth.
Ann's showing Larry's letter to her convinces Kate that Larry is dead. The
letter also answers Joe's repeated question about what he must do, to atone for
his crime. He cannot restore life to the dead, but he can give life (free from
a sense of moral surrender) back to his living son, Chris.
Joe Keller is not a very bad man. He loves his
family but does not see the universal human "family" which has a
higher claim on his duty. He may think he has got away with his crime, but is
troubled by the thought of it. He relies on his wife, Kate, not to betray his
guilt.
Chris Keller has been changed by his experience
of war, where he has seen men laying down their lives for their friends. He is
angry that the world has not been changed, that the selflessness of his fellow
soldiers counts for nothing. He feels guilty to make money out of a business which
does not value the men on whose labour it relies.
Kate Keller is a woman of enormous maternal love,
which extends to her neighbours' children, notably George. Despite her
instinctive warmth, she is capable of supporting Joe in his deceit. To believe
Larry is dead would (for her) be to believe his death was a punishment of Joe's
crime (an intolerable thought), so she must persuade herself that Larry still lives.
Joe sees this idea to be ridiculous, but must tolerate it to secure Kate's
support for his own deception.
Ann Deever shares Chris's high ideals but
believes he should not feel ashamed by his wealth. She disowns her father whom
she believes to be guilty. She has no wish to hurt Kate but will show her
Larry's letter if she (Kate) remains opposed to Ann's marrying Chris.
Dr. Jim Bayliss is a man who, in his youth,
shared Chris's ideals, but has been forced to compromise to pay the bills. He
is fair to his wife, but she knows how frustrated Jim feels. Jim's is the voice
of disillusioned experience. If any character speaks for the playwright (Arthur
Miller), it is Jim.
Sue Bayliss is an utterly cynical woman.
Believing Joe has “pulled a fast one”, she does not mind his awful crime, yet
she dislikes Chris because his idealism, which she calls “phoney”, makes Jim
feel restless. She is an embittered, rather grasping woman, whose ambitions are
material wealth and social acceptance. She does not at all understand the moral
values which her husband shares with Chris.
George Deever is a soul-mate of Chris. When
younger, he greatly admired him. In the war, like Chris, he has been decorated
for bravery. He follows Chris in accepting that Steve is guilty. Now he
reproaches Chris for (as he sees it) deceiving him. He is bitter because he has
grown cynical about the ideals for which he sacrificed his own opportunities
for happiness.
Lydia Lubey is a rather one-dimensional
character: she is chiefly in the play to show what George and Chris (so far)
have gone without. She is simple, warm and affectionate, rather a stereotype of
femininity (she is confused by electrical appliances). Her meeting with George
is painful to observe: she has the happy home life which he has forfeited [4,
76]. We understand why George declines her well-meant but tactless invitation
to see her babies.
Frank Lubey (unlike George, Larry, Chris and Jim)
is a materialist. He lacks culture, education and real intelligence, but has
made money in business, and has courted Lydia while the slightly younger men
were fighting in the war. His dabbling in quack astrology (horoscopes) lends
support to Kate's wild belief that Larry is still alive.
Throughout literature works of tragedy have been
significant, for example, Hamlet or King Lear. Their plots were generally
tragic, but the themes introduced such as the tragic hero brought up deep ideas
that could be discussed and thought about extensively. One problem with modern
literature is that very few tragedies have been written. One of the few authors
that did write tragedies was Arthur Miller. He even wrote an essay commenting
on the lack of modern tragedies, believing this to be because people thought
they were “fit only for the very highly placed, the kings or the kingly” . He
believed that the “common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in its highest
sense as kings were.” From this belief he wrote several tragedies that won him
awards and respect from his peers. One such tragedy was All My Sons, which was
about the lies and immorality of a man and the resulting actions and
consequences. The themes presented-dishonesty and immorality-intensify the
tragic mood of the play. These themes are developed due to the actions of one
man, Joe Keller, who could be a considered a tragic man. These negative themes
that are brought up by the actions of Joe Keller, the tragic man, prove why
this play is a modern tragedy.
The themes in All My Sons are mainly derived from
the concept of morals, the laws that man follows through our conscience. One of
the themes that branches out from this is morality, the principles about human
life. This theme is evident when related to the Keller family, where a conflict
between morality and the loss of it takes place. Joe Keller, the father of the
Keller family, was responsible for sending out faulty cylinder heads during
World War 2, which resulted in the deaths of 21 fighter pilots. He believed
those deaths were justified, because he kept his business, which in turn kept
his family fed and healthy “You lay forty years into a business and they knock
you out in five minutes, what could I do…Chris, I did it for you…For you, a
business for you!” (All My Sons, pg. 69,70). His wife, Kate Keller, supported
him because if he was responsible for those deaths then he could have been
responsible for his sons death, Larry Keller, a fighter pilot “Your brother’s
alive, darling, because if he’s dead, your father killed him.” (All My Sons,
pg. 68). Just like Joe, she did not see the full scope of his crime, only
caring about the family. Joe’s justification and Kate’s ignorance of murder for
the benefit of the family causes the loss of morality to be evident in the
Keller household.
The two children of the family, Chris and Larry
Keller, have views on morality that contrast those of their parents [2, 99].
Once Chris found out about his fathers crimes, he demanded an explanation for
his actions “Then you did it. To the others…you killed twenty-one men…You
killed them, your murdered them!” (All My Sons, pg. 68,69).
He was disgusted that his father did this, and
when his father tried to justify it, he was shocked and furious:
For me!-I was dying every day and you were
killing my boys and you did it for me?…You’re not even an animal, no animal
kills his own, what are you?…I ought to tear the tongue out of your mouth.”
Chris’ views on morality began the conflict with
his father, but once Larry’s views were revealed, this conflict escalates “I
read about Dad…How could he have done that?…if I had him here now I could kill
him…I can’t bear to live any more.“ (All My Sons, pg. 83). Due to his
embarrassment of his father's crime Larry committed suicide. The sons of the
Keller family had different views on morality from their parents, holding them
to a very high standard. These conflicting views between the parents and
children resulted in the suicide of Joe Keller. His morals encompassed only his
family, therefore when he realized his actions resulted in the death of his
son, he committed suicide not being able to bear the moral crime he committed.
This conflict resulted in suicide, making this a tragic theme.
Another theme that branches from morals is
honesty. This theme is significant because it involves mostly every character
from the play. One character that is significant is Joe Keller. He lied to all
his friends, even to parts of his own family, stating that he was not involved
with the production of the faulty cylinder heads. The truth about his crime was
revealed when his wife did not go on with the lie about being sick during the
war “Well, sure…I meant except for that flu. Well, it slipped my mind, don’t
look at me that way.”(All My Sons, pg. 65). Only when Chris interrogated Joe
did he reveal the truth about his crime. He even lied to Herbert after telling
him he would take the blame for the faulty cylinder heads. When the time came
to admit he was the one that ordered the shipment of the faulty cylinder heads,
he denied involvement and resulted in Herbert going to jail. The loss in
honesty spread to other characters. Dr. Jim Bayliss was not fond of Chris, but
he never told him this. It was revealed to the audience because Sue, Jim’s
wife, told Ann, Chris’s fiancйe “My husband is unhappy with Chris around…Every time he has a
session with Chris he feels as though he’s compromising by not giving up
everything for research.”(All My Sons, pg. 44). The neighbours’ dishonesty was
primarily directed at Joe, believing he was responsible for the faulty cylinder
heads, from Sue “Everybody knows Joe pulled a fast one to get out of jail”(All
My Sons, pg. 45) to Jim “What’d Joe do, tell him?…Don’t be afraid, Kate, I
know. I’ve always known.”(All My Sons, pg. 74). This dishonesty encompassed
most of the characters in the play, making this theme tragic.
Joe is described as a bad character with no sense
of morality or honesty, but he once was a good and honest worker and was a very
friendly person. His flaw is tragic because it turned a good and honest man
into a killer. This is called a “tragic flaw”, present in the tragic hero in
tragedies. Miller believes that tragedy does not only befall a hero, but the
common man as well “I believe that the common man is as apt a subject for
tragedy in its highest sense as kinds were”i. This belief lead him to create
the tragic man, and with the creation of the tragic man came Joe Keller. He is
seen as a polite man through his personality, a man who likes to socialize and
keep everyone on a positive spirit “Without Frank the stars wouldn’t know when
to come out…Take it easy, Frank, you’re a married man.”(All My Sons, pg. 28).
This is true for the common man and hero as well, who by Aristotle’s definition
has good and bad characteristics. Joe had bad characteristics as well, which
ended up being his tragic flaw. Miller believed the tragic flaw was “the flaw,
or crack in the character and was really nothing—and need be nothing—but his
inherent unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be
a challenge to his dignity”i. Joe’s unwillingness to let his company go
bankrupt forced him to decide whether his family’s wealth or the lives of
fighter pilots was more important to him. Unfortunately, he chose wrong, loving
his family so much he would do anything for them “Chris, I did it for you…For
you, a business for you!”(All My Sons, pg. 70). This was his tragic flaw
because due to his decision, his son committed suicide, which in turn caused
Joe to commit suicide realizing his guilt in the matter “Sure, he was my son.
But I think to him they were all my sons. And I guess they were, I guess they
were”(All My Sons, pg. 83). The tragic hero is meant to create sympathy because
of the lost potential. Due to Joe Keller’s tragic decision with the faulty
cylinder heads, he went from a polite and friendly man into a disrespected man
among his neighbours and his own family.
Great tragedies have always focused on the tragic
hero, like Hamlet in “Hamlet”, Macbeth in “Macbeth” and Oedipus in “Oedipus
Rex”. These plays show that focusing the story on the tragic hero is not a bad
idea, giving good reason why Arthur Miller did this in All My Sons. Miller’s
purpose was to bring the beauty of tragedy to modern literature, proving it
wasn’t only meant for the upper classes of aristocracy. He succeeded, making a
modern tragedy partially based on the form of past Shakespearean masterpieces,
leaving the death of the tragic hero towards the end of the play for example.
The conflicts between the Keller family and between all the characters brought
up tragic themes. These themes, in conjunction with the plot, made a tragic
hero out of Joe Keller, or in Miller’s case, a tragic man. This tragic man fits
the play perfectly with the themes associated with him. All My Sons can be
considered a modern tragedy because of the creation of the tragic man and how
his actions created several tragic themes. These actions resulted in his death,
which occurs to most tragic men and heroes in great tragedies
2.2 E. Heminqway’s “Fiesta” as a new approach to the tragic hero
Ernest Miller Heminqway (July 21, 1899 — July 2, 1961) was an American writer and journalist. He was part of
the 1920s expatriate community in Paris, and one of the
veterans of World War I
later known as "the Lost
Generation." He received the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for The
Old Man and the Sea, and the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.
Heminqway's distinctive
writing style is characterized by economy and understatement, and had a
significant influence on the development of twentieth-century fiction writing. His protagonists are typically stoical men who exhibit an
ideal described as "grace under pressure." Many of his works are now
considered classics of American
literature.
The Sun Also Rises (Later Fiesta) is the first major novel by Ernest Heminqway.[1] Published in 1926,
the plot
centers on a group of expatriate
Americans in Europe during
the 1920s. The book's title, selected by Heminqway (at the recommendation of
his publisher) is taken from Ecclesiastes 1:5: "The sun also ariseth, and the sun
goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose." Heminqway's original
title for the work was Fiesta, which was used in the British, German and
Spanish editions of the novel.
The novel explores the lives and values of the so-called "Lost Generation,"
chronicling the experiences of Jake Barnes and several acquaintances on their
pilgrimage to Pamplona for the annual fiesta and bull fights. After serving in
World War I, Jake is unable
to consummate a sexual relationship with Brett Ashley because of either
psychological or physical damage that leaves him impotent. However, he is still
attracted to and in love with her. The story follows Jake and his various
companions across France and Spain. Initially, Jake seeks peace away from
Brett by taking a fishing trip to Burguete, deep within the
Spanish hills, with companion Bill Gorton, another veteran of the war. The
fiesta in Pamplona is the setting for the eventual meeting of all the
characters, who play out their various desires and anxieties, alongside a great
deal of drinking.
Jake Barnes: The narrator of the story,
Barnes is an American World War I veteran who suffers from physical injuries
and psychological damage that renders him, which leads him to become unable to
pursue a sexual relationship with Brett. Having lost direction of his life as a
result of his experiences during the war, Barnes attempts to satisfy himself
through hard work, drinking, and bull fights.
Lady Ashley, or Brett: Brett is the object of lust for most of the
male characters of the book. Portrayed as elusive and promiscuous, Brett, like
Barnes, also lacks direction in life and finds emptiness in activities that she
would have normally enjoyed during pre-war times. She is engaged to Michael.
Robert Cohn: His status as an outsider as a result of being Jewish
has caused Cohn to develop an inferiority
complex. Despite attempts to be civil and courteous, Cohn is the
object of scorn from other characters. The novel's plot turns on his attempt to
recover a brief affair he had with Brett, leading him to tag along with the
group of expatriates, much to their collective vexation.
Bill Gorton: An old friend of Barnes, Bill is also a veteran of
the war and is less cruel than Michael in his attitudes towards Cohn. Despite
also being a heavy drinker, Bill is often more light-hearted than the rest of
his peers.
Pedro Romero: The star bullfighter of the fiesta, Romero is
introduced to Jake and his friends, falls in love with Brett, and then they
split up when they recognize her inability to commit to a sustained
relationship. His autonomy, steadfastness, and commitment make him a model for
Jake, who possesses none of these qualities even though he aspires to them.
Furthermore, the younger Pedro Romero having been born in 1905 represents the
younger Civic Generation, often referred to as the Greatest
Generation. This served to further demonstrate the Lost Generation's
feelings of insecurity and disillusionment compared to their next-younger
Generation.
The novel has heavy undercurrents of suppressed emotions and
buried values. Its weary and aimless expatriates serve as
metaphors for society's lost optimism
and innocence after the war. The topic of war is rarely discussed explicitly by
any of the characters, but its effects are alluded to through the sexual
impotence of Jake and his war wound, and the behavior of the other characters,
whom Carlos Baker described as "floundering in an emulsion of ennui and
alcohol." The war is also present as the tragedy that affects the way
characters are able to deal with themselves, and post-war society. The themes
of the novel are cast against the background of the Biblical quotation the book
opens with: "One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh;
but the earth abideth forever"[2]
.
The Sun Also Rises is considered one of Heminqway's best novels
alongside A
Farewell to Arms and For
Whom the Bell Tolls.[citation needed] It is considered ground-breaking in its
economic use of language for creating atmosphere and recording dialogue. Upon
its publication, many U.S. critics denounced its focus on aimless, promiscuous,
and generally licentious characters. On the other hand, it was extremely
popular with a young and international readership. Since then, the novel has
gained general recognition as a modernist masterpiece.
While most critics tend to take the characters seriously, some
have argued that the novel is satirical in its portrayal of love and romance.
It shows Jake and Cohn, the two male protagonists, vying for the affections of
Brett, who is clearly unworthy of the naive praise they heap on her (Cohn
openly, Jake implicitly). This could be true in the sense that all of Heminqway's
writing "pokes fun at" humans, their vulnerabilities and foibles.
However, Heminqway is usually considered too dismayed with the human condition
to have been anything but serious, and the situations of his characters so
pathetic as to have moved well beyond simple sarcasm.
In The Sun Also Rises, gender issues are dealt with very seriously
by critics, though there is little consensus among them. Some critics charge
that the depiction of Brett as a 'liberated woman' is intrinsic to her
divisiveness in relationships throughout the novel, and therefore that Heminqway
saw strong women as causing trouble, particularly for the men who otherwise
dominate the novel [21, 156]. The reading of Brett as a 'strong' or 'liberated
woman' is itself debatable, however, as she seems unable to live outside a
heterosexual relationship. Twice divorced, she has a sexual relationship with
almost every man she meets, which suggests a neurotic and necessarily
unsuccessful craving for security rather than independence from men. In this reading,
Brett is as much a victim of the war and its destruction of social mores as are
the male characters. Other critics have argued that Brett signifies the
castration of Jake, meanwhile defenders suggest that Brett actually becomes the
main character by being the only person Jake is truly interested in. Although
the reasons vary significantly from critic to critic, the majority of critical
opinion still labels Brett's character as an expression of misogyny [16, 182].
Another point of criticism is Heminqway's depiction of character
Robert Cohn, a Jewish man who is often the subject of mockery by his peers.
Though some critics have interpreted this as anti-Semitism on the part of Heminqway,
defenders of the book argue that Cohn is depicted in a sympathetic manner,
mocked not due to his religion but due to his failure to serve during World War
I. Interestingly, Heminqway is reported to have said that Cohn was the
"hero" of the book, and Harold Loeb, the Jewish
writer who served as a model for Cohn, defended Heminqway from charges of
anti-Semitism.
Rises Jake Barnes is the character who maintains the typical Code
Hero qualities; while Robert Cohn provides the antithesis of a Code Hero.
Jake Barnes, the narrator and main character of The Sun Also
Rises, is left impotent by an ambiguous accident during World War I. Jake's
wound is the first of many code hero traits that he features. This physical
wound, however, transcends into an emotional one by preventing Jake from ever
consummating his love with Lady Brett Ashley. Emotional suffering can take its
toll on the Code Hero as it did with Jake Barnes. Despite the deep love between
Jake and Lady Brett, Jake is forced to keep the relationship strictly platonic
and stand watch as different men float in and out of Lady Ashley's life and
bed. No one other than Jake and Brett ever learn the complexity of their
relationship because Jake's hopeless love for Brett and the agony it entails
are restricted to scenes known to themselves alone. Therefore, Jake suffers in
silence because he has learned to trust and rely only upon himself, which is
conducive to the Heminqway Code as well. Jake is an American who travels to
Europe to satiate his appetite for exotic landscapes and to escape his pain. Jake
tries to live his life to the fullest with drinking, partying, and sporting
with friends. With these pastimes, Jake hopes to hide from his fault and get on
with the life he has been made to suffer. Watching and participating in sports help accentuate the Code Hero's
masculinity and provide the sense of pride Jake has lost. This gain of pride is
essential in the Heminqway Code. Jake attends fishing trips with friends, he
visits Pamplona, Spain to witness the running of the bulls, and he acts as a
mediator between arguing friends. These characteristics reveal his strong
character built of courage and grace. Jake, as with any Code Hero, is a man of
action who spends more time achieving goals than talking about them.
Jake's friend, Robert Cohn violates everything a Heminqway Code
Hero represents. He is rich, gifted, and skillful and is ready to discuss his
emotions in detail. Robert refuses to admit defeat when Brett rejects him
repeatedly. Unlike Jake, when Cohn is hurt, he insists on complaining to
everyone instead of suffering in silence. Cohn does nothing to assert his
masculinity, either. He allows people, especially women to ridicule him and
knock down his self esteem. Cohn obviously can not stand up for himself and
does not take action when he should. Consequently, Robert has no self control.
When a matador sleeps with Brett, whom Cohn is in love with, he takes out his
jealousy by beating him repeatedly. Although a man of action, Jake, the
quintessential Heminqway Hero, knows when to control himself, Robert Cohn does
not.
On the whole, Jake Barnes strictly adheres to the qualities of the
typical Heminqway Code Hero. He relies solely on himself, utilizes his assets,
enjoys bullfights and other honorable activities. He is an individual of action
and speaks not of what he believes; rather he just does what he believes to be
right subtlety without any fanfare. Jake has lived with disappointment and
frustration all his life, yet he overcomes it and uses the lesson to his advantage. On the other hand,
Robert Cohn, who has had the easy life is the perpetual loser. He allows people
to walk all over him and continually feels sorry for himself. Robert Cohn is
the false knight, who, in theory should be the victorious protagonist but will
always turn out to be a shallow person who lives on the fringes of life. In the
end, the person who does not possess the Code Hero qualities can never discover
himself, and therefore never truly be happy.
2.3 The tragic hero as representation problem in the works E. Heminqway
and Arthur Miller
Tragedy
is exceptional suffering in life leading the protagonist to death. The hero suffers
from a fault, a defect, an imbalance or a flaw leading to his downfall. The
tragic hero may perish and may be destroyed but it is not possible to crush his
soul easily. The novels of Ernest Heminqway fulfill most of these domains of
tragedy.
Tragedy
usually focuses on figures of stature whose fall implicates others such as
family, an entire group, or even a whole society and typically the tragic
figure becomes isolated from his group or society. Death, destruction, horror,
sufferings are some of the major characteristics of a tragic hero.
The characters of “A Farewell to Arms” are only innocent victims of a war for
which they are not responsible. They have nothing to do with its plans, slogans
or objectives. However, the setting of the novel is the war itself with all its
horrors and outcomes [13, 145]. The escape of the major characters Fredric
Henry and Catherine Barkley softens to some extent the burdens of this bloody
war. The escape represents a disgust at the failure of western civilization to
achieve its objectives.
The
vision of war is one of suffering, and destruction. War represents all the
dark, diabolic powers and its quest is monomaniacal. Concerning the philosophy
of love and war, one can see that Catherine and Fredric represent love and peace.
Their escapism from war with all its vices and darkness softens the agony and
burdens of war.
Heminqway
has a message for mankind that we must seek a world devoid of wars. Life should
continue within its continuum wheel for the welfare of the humanity
Tragedy
presents situations that emphasize vulnerability, situations in which both
physical and spiritual security and comforts are undermined, and in which the
characters are pressed to the utmost limits – overwhelming odds, demonic forces
within or without or even both. Against this tragic protagonist are the powers
whether human or divine governed by fate or chance, fortune or accident,
necessity or circumstances, or any combination of these elements.
Tragedy
testifies to suffering as an enduring, often-inexplicable force in human life.
In the suffering of the protagonist there is some human cause. Tragic vision
implies that suffering can call forth human potentialities, it can clarify
human capabilities, and that there is a spiritual progress achieved through
this suffering. In fact, tragedy provides a complex vision of human heroism, a
riddle mixed with glory and jest, nobility and irony. Tragedy presents not only
human weakness and liability to suffering, but also its nobility and greatness.
It is, therefore, understandable why tragedy does not occur to puppets or to
people with little value.
According
to Heminqway, the external forces of the war also doom Fredric Henry in “A
Farewell to Arms”, which have left him alone after the death of Catherine. The
philosophy is that the world breaks everyone impartially, and death falls on
the earth without mercy [13, 158]. However, death in war is violent and
catastrophic and it comes suddenly and unreasonably, it is not like one who
dies on his deathbed. Heminqway has been conscious of the doom and of the
unavoidable death, yet his works disclose a love for life. The world breaks
everyone but those that will not break it kills.
In
this age few tragedies are written. It has often been held that the lack is due
to a paucity of heroes among us, or else that modern man has had the blood
drawn out of his organs of belief by the skepticism of science, and the heroic
attack on life cannot feed on an attitude of reserve and circumspection. For
one reason or another, we are often held to be below tragedy-or tragedy above
us. The inevitable conclusion is, of course, that the tragic mode is archaic,
fit only for the very highly placed, the kings or the kingly, and where this
admission is not made in so many words it is most often implied.
I
believe that the common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in its highest
sense as kings were. On the face of it this ought to be obvious in the light of
modern psychiatry, which bases its analysis upon classic formulations, such as
the Oedipus and Orestes complexes, for instance, which were enacted by royal
beings, but which apply to everyone in similar emotional situations.
More
simply, when the question of tragedy in art in not at issue, we never hesitate
to attribute to the well-placed and the exalted the very same mental processes
as the lowly. And finally, if the exaltation of tragic action were truly a
property of the high-bred character alone, it is inconceivable that the mass Of
mankind should cherish tragedy above all other forms, let alone be capable of
understanding it.
As
a general rule, to which there may be exceptions unknown to me, I think the
tragic feeling is evoked in us when we are in the presence of a character who
is ready to lay down his life, if need be, to secure one thing--his sense of
personal dignity. From Orestes to Hamlet, Medea to Macbeth, the underlying
struggles that of the individual attempting to gain his "rightful"
position in his society [17, 187].
Sometimes
he is one who has been displaced from it, sometimes one who seeks to attain it
for the first time, but the fateful wound from which the inevitable events
spiral is the wound of indignity, and its dominant force is indignation.
Tragedy, then, is the consequence of a man's total compulsion to evaluate himself
justly.
In
the sense of having been initiated by the hero himself, the tale always reveals
what has been called his tragic flaw," a failing that is not peculiar to
grand or elevated characters. Nor is it necessarily a weakness. The flaw, or
crack in the character, is really nothing and need be nothing, but his inherent
unwillingness to remain passive in the face of what he conceives to be a
challenge to his dignity, his image of his rightful status. Only the passive,
only those who accept their lot without active retaliation, are
"flawless." Most of us are in that category. But there are among us
today, as there always have been, those who act against the scheme of things
that degrades them, and in the process of action everything we have accepted
out of fear or insensitivity or ignorance is shaken before us and examined, and
from this total onslaught by an individual against the seemingly stable cosmos
surrounding us from this total examination of the "unchangeable"
environmentcomes the terror and the fear that is classically associated with
tragedy.
More
important, from this total questioning of what has previously been
unquestioned, we learn [19, 165]. And such a process is not beyond the common
man. In revolutions around the world, these past thirty years, he has
demonstrated again and again this inner dynamic of all tragedy.
Insistence
upon the rank of the tragic hero, or the so-called nobility of his character,
is really but a clinging to the outward forms of tragedy. If rank or nobility
of character was indispensable, then it would follow that the problems of those
with rank were the particular problems of tragedy. But surely the right of one
monarch to capture the domain from another no longer raises our passions, nor
are our concepts of justice what they were to the mind of an Elizabethan king.
The
quality in such plays that does shake us, however, derives from the underlying
fear of being displaced, the disaster inherent in being torn away from our
chosen image of what or who we are in this world. Among us today this fear is
as strong, and perhaps stronger, than it ever was. In fact, it is the common
man who knows this fear best.
Now,
if it is true that tragedy is the consequence of a man's total compulsion to
evaluate himself justly, his destruction in the attempt posits a wrong or an
evil in his environment. And this is precisely the morality of tragedy and its
lesson. The discovery of the moral law, which is what the enlightenment of
tragedy consists of, is not the discovery of some abstract or metaphysical
quantity.
The
tragic night is a condition of life, a condition in which the human personality
is able to flower and realize itself. The wrong is the condition which
suppresses man, perverts the flowing out of his love and creative instinct.
Tragedy enlightens and it must, in that it points the heroic finger at the
enemy of man's freedom. The thrust for freedom is the quality in tragedy which
exalts. The revolutionary questioning of the stable environment is what
terrifies. In no way is the common man debarred from such thoughts or such
actions.
Seen
in this light, our lack of tragedy may be partially accounted for by the turn
which modern literature has taken toward the purely psychiatric view of life,
or the purely sociological. If all our miseries, our indignities, are born and
bred within our minds, then all action, let alone the heroic action, is
obviously impossible.
And
if society alone is responsible for the cramping of our lives, then the
protagonist must needs be so pure and faultless as to force us to deny his
validity as a character [5, 83]. From neither of these views can tragedy
derive, simply because neither represents a balanced concept of life. Above all
else, tragedy requires the finest appreciation by the writer of cause and
effect.
No
tragedy can therefore come about when its author fears to question absolutely
everything, when he regards any institution, habit or custom as being either
everlasting, immutable or inevitable. In the tragic view the need of man to
wholly realize himself is the only fixed star, and whatever it is that hedges
his nature and lowers it is ripe for attack and examination. Which is not to
say that tragedy must preach revolution.
The
Greeks could probe the very heavenly origin of their ways and return to confirm
the rightness of laws. And Job could face God in anger, demanding his right and
end in submission. But for a moment everything is in suspension, nothing is
accepted, and in this stretching and tearing apart of the cosmos, in the very
action of so doing, the character gains "size," the tragic stature
which is spuriously attached to the royal or the high born in our minds. The
commonest of men may take on that stature to the extent of his willingness to
throw all he has into the contest, the battle to secure his rightful place in
his world.
There
is a misconception of tragedy with which I have been struck in review after
review, and in many conversations with writers and readers alike. It is the
idea that tragedy is of necessity allied to pessimism. Even the dictionary says
nothing more about the word than that it means a story with a sad or unhappy
ending. This impression is so firmly fixed that I almost hesitate to claim that
in truth tragedy implies more optimism in its author than does comedy, and that
its final result ought to be the reinforcement of the onlooker's brightest
opinions of the human animal.
For,
if it is true to say that in essence the tragic hero is intent upon claiming
his whole due as a personality, and if this struggle must be total and without
reservation, then it automatically demonstrates the indestructible will of man
to achieve his humanity. The possibility of victory must be there in tragedy.
Where pathos rules, where pathos is finally derived, a character has fought a
battle he could not possibly have won. The pathetic is achieved when the
protagonist is, by virtue of his witlessness, his insensitivity or the very air
he gives off, incapable of grappling with a much superior force. Pathos truly
is the mode for the pessimist. But tragedy requires a nicer balance between
what is possible and what is impossible. And it is curious, although edifying,
that the plays we revere, century after century, are the tragedies. In them,
and in them alone, lies the belief--optimistic, if you will, in the
perfectibility of man. It is time, I think, that we who are without kings, took
up this bright thread of our history and followed it to the only place it can
possible lead in our time--the heart and spirit of the average man.
CONCLUSION
Miller’s style is very simple. He uses simple sentences and words
which are easy to understand. He brings out the evil quality of Abigail and the
other girls and also the gullibility of the judges. His style is easy to
understand and should be in order to be successful as a play. While using the
simple style, Miller doesn’t take anything away from the suspense in the plot. The
dialogues of his character are like actual speech. His words are used
effectively and doesn’t include anything not necessary for making a good play. Many
clever figurative devices are used. For example, Abigail says that John
“sweated like a stallion.” The writing is really that memorable since it was
not really written as prose or poetry. However, certain images as the one
previously mentioned are hard to forget.
The theme of the story was rising over adversity, and standing for
the truth even to death. This is the theme for many stories and is always an
exciting one. John, in the beginning, wanted to keep distant from the trials. He
did not want to have a part, whether good or bad. When Elizabeth was arrested,
he was forced to become part of it [3, 145]. He went to court first to set his
wife free but after watching the proceedings, he saw that the evil was not only
being done to his own wife but many others like his wife. As a result, he
worked even harder to free the other innocent people, getting himself arrested.
The themes in All My Sons are mainly derived from
the concept of morals, the laws that man follows through our conscience. One of
the themes that branches out from this is morality, the principles about human
life. This theme is evident when related to the Keller family, where a conflict
between morality and the loss of it takes place. Joe Keller, the father of the
Keller family, was responsible for sending out faulty cylinder heads during
World War 2, which resulted in the deaths of 21 fighter pilots.
The Sun Also Rises (Later Fiesta) is the first major novel by Ernest Heminqway. The novel
explores the lives and values of the so-called "Lost Generation,"
chronicling the experiences of Jake Barnes and several acquaintances on their
pilgrimage to Pamplona for the annual fiesta and bull fights. After serving in
World War I, Jake is unable
to consummate a sexual relationship with Brett Ashley because of either
psychological or physical damage that leaves him impotent. However, he is still
attracted to and in love with her. The story follows Jake and his various
companions across France and Spain. Initially, Jake seeks peace away from
Brett by taking a fishing trip to Burguete, deep within the
Spanish hills, with companion Bill Gorton, another veteran of the war. The fiesta
in Pamplona is the setting for the eventual meeting of all the characters, who
play out their various desires and anxieties, alongside a great deal of
drinking.
GENERAL CONCLUSION
On the basis of above-stated we came to a conclusion, that the
story reminds its readers of an ugly blemish on human history. It reminds us
that man is not perfect, and that we can make mistakes. However, even with
these mistakes, we can cleanse ourselves and purify ourselves by making what is
wrong right. The sufferings become to the sufferer like a crucible.
Miller's plays often depict how families are destroyed by false
values. Especially his earliest efforts show his admiration for the classical
Greek dramatists. "When I began to write," he said in an interview,
"one assumed inevitably that one was in the mainstream that began with
Aeschylus and went through about twenty-five hundred years of
playwriting." (from The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller, ed. by
Christopher Bigsby, 1997)
Great tragedies have always focused on the tragic
hero, like Hamlet in “Hamlet”, Macbeth in “Macbeth” and Oedipus in “Oedipus
Rex”. These plays show that focusing the story on the tragic hero is not a bad
idea, giving good reason why Arthur Miller did this in All My Sons. Miller’s purpose
was to bring the beauty of tragedy to modern literature, proving it wasn’t only
meant for the upper classes of aristocracy. He succeeded, making a modern
tragedy partially based on the form of past Shakespearean masterpieces, leaving
the death of the tragic hero towards the end of the play for example. The
conflicts between the Keller family and between all the characters brought up
tragic themes. These themes, in conjunction with the plot, made a tragic hero
out of Joe Keller, or in Miller’s case, a tragic man. This tragic man fits the
play perfectly with the themes associated with him. All My Sons can be
considered a modern tragedy because of the creation of the tragic man and how
his actions created several tragic themes. These actions resulted in his death,
which occurs to most tragic men and heroes in great tragedies
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[1]
The Sun Also Rises (Later Fiesta).
[2]
Ecclesiastes 1:4.