The Renaissance
Реферат
по
теме:
«The Renaissance»
The
"dark" Middle Ages were followed by a time known in art and
literature as the Renaissance. The word "renaissance" means
"rebirth" in French and was used to denote a phase in the cultural
development of Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries.
The
wave of progress reached the shores of England only in the 16th century. The
ideas of the Renaissance came to England together with the ideas of the
Reformation (the establishment of the national Church) and were called the
"New Learning". Every year numbers of new books were brought out, and
these books were sold openly, but few people could read and enjoy them. The
universities were lacking in teachers to spread the ideas of modern thought.
So, many English scholars began to go to Italy, where they learned to
understand the ancient classics, and when they came home they adapted their
classical learning to the needs of the country. Grammar schools (primary
schools) increased in number. The new point of view passed from the schools to
the home and to the market place.
Many
of the learned men in Italy came from the great city of Constantinopole. It was
besieged and taken by Turks in 1453. All the great libraries and schools in
Constanstinople had been broken up and destroyed. The Latin and Greek scholars
were driven out of the city, glad to escape with their lives and with such
books as they could carry away with them. Being learned men, many of them found
a welcome in the cities and towns in which they stopped. They began to teach
the people how to read the Latin and Greek books which they had brought with
them and also taught them to read the Latin and Greek books which were kept in
many towns of Europe, but which few people at that time were able to read.
Foreign
scholars and artists began to teach in England during the reign of Henry VIII.
In painting and music the first period of the Renaissance was one of imitation.
Painting was represented by German artist Holbein, and music by Italians and
French men. With literature the case was different. The English poets and
dramatists popularized much of the new learning. The freedom of thought of
English humanists revealed itself in antifeudal and even antibourgeois ideas,
showing the life of their own people as it really was. Such a writer was the
humanist Thomas More.
Thomas
More
(1478-1535)
Thomas
More, the first English humanist of the Renaissance, was born in London in
1478. Educated at Oxford, he could write a most beautiful Latin. It was not the
Latin of the Church but the original classical Latin. At Oxford More met a
foreign humanist, and made friends with him. Erasmus believed in the common
sense of a man and taught that men ought to think for themselves, and not
merely to believe things to be true because their fathers, or the priest had
said they were true. Later, Thomas More wrote many letters to Erasmus and
received many letters from him.
Thomas
More began life as a lawyer. During the reign of Henry VII he became a member
of Parliament. He was an active-minded man and kept a keen eye on the events of
his time. The rich landowners at the time were concentrating on sheep-raising
because it was very profitable. Small holders were not allowed to till the soil
and were driven off their lands. The commons (public ground) were enclosed and
fields converted into pastures. The mass of the agricultural population were
doomed to poverty. Thomas More set to work to find the reason of this evil. He
was the first great writer on social and political subjects in England.
Fourteen
years after Henry VIII came to the throne, More was made Speaker of the House
of Commons. The Tudor monarchy was an absolute monarchy, and Parliament had
very little power to resist the king. There was, however, one matter on which
Parliament was very determined. That was the right to vote or to refuse to vote
for the money. Once when the King wanted money and asked Parliament to vote him
800.000, the members sat silent. Twice the King's messengers called, and twice
they had to leave without an answer. When Parliament was called together again,
Thomas More spoke up and urged that the request be refused. After a long
discussion a sum less then half the amount requested by the King was voted, and
that sum was to be spread over a period of four years.
Thomas
More was an earnest Catholic, but he was not liked by the priests and the Pope
on account of his writings and the ideas he taught. After Henry VIII quarrelled
with the Pope he gathered around himself all the enemies of the Pope, and so in
1529 More was made Lord Chancellor (highest judge to the House of Lords). He
had not wanted the post because he was as much against the king's absolute
power in England as he was against the Pope. More soon fell a victim to the
King's anger. He refused to swear that he would obey Henry as the head of the
English Church, and was thrown into the Tower. Parliament, to please the King,
declared More guilty of treason, and he was beheaded in the Tower in 1535.
The
Works of Thomas More
Thomas
More wrote in English and in Latin. The humanists of al1 European countries
communicated in the Latin language, and their best works were written in Latin.
The English writings of Thomas More include:
*
Discussions and political subjects.
*
Biographies.
*
Poetry.
His
style is simple, colloquial end has an unaffected ease. The work by which he is
best remembered today is "Utopia" which was written in Latin in the
year 1516. It has now been translated into all European languages.
"Utopia"
(which in Greek means "nowhere") is the name of a non-existent
island. This work is divided into two books.
In
the first, the author gives a profound and truthful picture of the people's
sufferings and points out the socia1 evils existing, in England at the time.
The
word "utopia" has become a byword and is used in Modern English to
denote an unattainable ideal, usually in social and political matters. But the
writer H.G. Wells, who wrote an introduction to the latest edition, said that
the use of the word "utopia" was far from More's essentia1 quality,
whose mind abounded in sound, practical ideas. The book is in reality a very
unimaginative work.
"Utopia"
describes a perfect social system built on communist principles.
"Utopia"
First
book
While
on business in Flanders, the author makes the acquaintance of a certain Raphael
Hythloday, a sailor who has travelled with the famous explorer Amerigo
Vespucci. He has much to tell about his voyages, Thomas More, Raphael Hythloday
and a cardinal meet together in a garden and discuss many problems. Raphael has
been to England too and expresses his surprise at the cruelty of English laws
and at the poverty of the population. Then they talk about crime in general,
and Raphael says:
"There
is another cause of stealing which I suppose is proper and peculiar to you
Englishmen alone."
"What
is that?" asked the Cardinal.
"Oh,
my lord," said Raphael, "your sheep that used to be so meek and tame
and so small eaters, have now become so great devourers and so wild that they
eat up and swallow down the very men themselves. The peasants are driven out of
their land. Away they go finding no place to rest in. And when all is spent,
what can they do but steal and then be hanged?"
Second
Book
The
disastrous state of things in England puts Raphael Hythloday in mind of a
commonwealth (a republic) he has seen on an unknown island in an unknown sea. A
description of "Utopia" follows, and Raphael speaks "of all the
good laws and orders of this same island."
There
is no private property in Utopia. The people own everything in common and enjoy
complete economic equality. Everyone cares for his neighbour's good, and each
has a clean and healthy house to live in. Labour is the most essential feature
of life in Utopia, but no one is overworked. Everybody is engaged in usefu1
work nine hours a day. After work, they indulge in sport and games and spend
much time in "improving their minds" (learning)-All teaching is free,
and the parents do not have to pay any schoo1 fees. (More wrote about things
unknown in any country at that time, though they are natural with us in our
days.)
For
magistrates the Utopians choose men whom they think to be most fit to protect
the welfare of the population. When electing their government, the people give
their voices secretly. There are few laws and no lawyers at all, but these few
laws must be strictly obeyed.
"Virtue,"
says Thomas More, "lives according to Nature." The greatest of all
pleasures is perfect health. Man must be healthy and wise.
Thomas
More's "Utopia" was the first literary work in which the ideas of
Cornmunism appeared. It was highly esteemed by all the humanists of Europe in
More's time and again grew very popular with the socialists of the 19th
century. After More, a tendency began in literature to write fantastic novels
on social reforms, and many such works appeared in various countries.
SECOND
PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE.
THE
PREDECESSORS OF SHAKESPEARE
The
most significant period of the Renaissance in England falls to the reign of
Queen Elizabeth. England's success in commerce brought prosperity to the nation
and gave a chance to many persons of talent to develop their abilities.
Explorers, men of letters, philosophers, poets and famous actors and dramatists
appeared in rapid succession. The great men of the so-called "Elizabethan
Era" distinguished themselves by their activities in many fields and
displayed an insatiable thirst for knowledge. They were often called "the
Elizabethans", but of course the Queen had no hand in assisting them when
they began literary work; the poets and dramatists had to push on through great
difficulties before they became well known.
Towards
the middle of the 16th century common people were already striving for
knowledge and the sons of many common citizens managed to get an education. The
universities began to breed many learned men who refused to become churchmen
and wrote for the stage. These were called the "University Wits",
because under the influence of their classical education they wrote after Greek
and Latin models. Among the "University Wits" were Christopher
Marlowe, Thomas Sackville, John Lyly, George Peele, Roberk Greene, Thomas Kyd
and Thqmas Nashe; Christopher Marlowe being the most distinguished of them. The
new method of teaching classical literature at the universities was to perform
Roman plays in Latin, Later the graduates translated these plays into English
and then they wrote plays of their own.
Some
wrote plays for the court, others for the public theatres. But the plays were
not mere imitations. Ancient literature had taught the playwrights to seek new
forms and to bring in new progressive ideas. The new drama represented real
characters and real human problems which satisfied the demands of the common
people and they expected ever new plays. Under such favourable circumstances
there was a sudden rise of the drama. The great plays were written in verse.
The
second period of the Renaissance was characterised by the splendour of its
poetry.
EDMUND
SPENSER
(1552-1599)
Edmund
Spenser was born in London in 1552. Though his parents descended from a noble
House, the family was poor. His father was a free journeyman for a merchant's
company. When Edmund came of age he entered the University of Cambridge as a
"sizar" (a student who paid less for his education than others and
had to wait on (to serve) the wealthier students at mealtimes).
Spenser
was learned in Hebrew, Greek, Latin and French. His generation was one of the
first to study also their mother tongue seriously. While at college, he acted
in the tragedies of the ancient masters and this inspired him to write poetry.
Spenser
began his literary work at the age of seventeen. Once a fellow-student
introduced him to the famous Sir Philip Sidney, who encouraged him to write
(Sidney was the author of an allegorical romance in prose called
"Arcadia" that had become very popular as light reading among the
court-ladies of Queen Elizabeth). At the age of twenty-three, Spenser took his
M.A. (Master of Arts) degree.
Before
returning to London he lived for a while in the wilderness of Lancashire where
he fell in love with a "fair widow's daughter". His love was not
returned but he clung to this early passion; she became the Rosalind of his
poem the "Shepherd s Calendar". Spenser's disappointment in love
drove him southward - he accepted the invitation of Sir Philip Sidney to visit
him at his estate. There he finished writing his "Shepherd's
Calendar". The poem was written in 12 eclogues. "Eclogue" is a
Greek word meaning a poem about ideal shepherd life. Each eclogue is dedicated
to one of the months of the year, the whole making up a sort of calendar.
The
publication of this work made Spenser the first poet of his day. His poetry was
so musical and colourful that he was called the poet-painter.
Philip
Sidney introduced the poet to the illustrious courtier, the Earl of Leicester,
who, in his turn, brought him to the notice of the Queen. Spenser was given
royal favour and appointed as secretary to the new Lord-lieutenant of Ireland.
Thus he had to leave
England
for good.
The
suppression of Ireland provoked many rebellions against the English. English
military governors were sent confiscate the lands of the rebels and to put
English people on them. Spenser was sent to such a place near Cork. He felt an
exile in the, lonely castle of Kilcolman, yet he could not help admiring the,
changeful beauty of the place.
The
castle stood by a deep lake into which flowed a river (the Mulla). Soft
woodlands stretched towards mountain ranges in the distance. The beauty of his
surroundings inspired Spenser to write his great epic poem the "Faerie
Queen" ("Fairy Queen"), in which Queen Elizabeth is idealised.
Sir
Walter Raleigh who was captain of the Queen's guard, came to visit Spenser at
Kilcolman. He was greatly delighted with the poem, and Spenser decided to
publish the first three parts. Raleigh and Spenser returned to England
together. At court Spenser presented his "simple song" to the Queen.
It was published in 1591. The success of the poem was great. The Queen rewarded
him with a pension of 50 pounds, but his position remained unchanged. Poetry
was regarded as a noble pastime but not a profession; and Edmund Spenser had to
go back to Ireland.
The
end of his life was sorrowful. When the next rebellion broke out, the
insurgents attacked the castle so suddenly and so furiously that Spenser and
his wife and children had to flee for their lives. Their youngest child was
burnt to death in the blazing ruins of the castle. Ruined and heart-broken
Spenser went to England and there he died in a London tavern three months
later, in 1599.
THE
"FAIRY QUEEN"
The
poem is an allegory representing ihe court of Queen Elizabeth. The whole is an
interweaving of Greek myths and English legends.
Spenser
planned to divide his epic poem into twelve books. The 12 books were to tell of
the warfare of 12 knights. But only six books of the "Fairy Queen"
were finished. The first two books are the best and the most interesting. The
allegory is not so clear in the rest.
Prince
Arthur is the hero of the poem. In a vision he sees Gloriana, the Fairy Queen.
She is so beautiful that he falls in love with her. Armed by Merlin he sets out
to seek her in Fairy Land. She is supposed to hold her annual 12-day feast
during which
12
adventures are to be achieved by 12 knights. Each knight represents a certain
virtue: Holiness, Temperance, Friendship, Justice, Courtesy, Constancy, etc.,
which are opposed to Falsehood, Hypocrisy and others in the form of witches,
wizards and monsters.
Spenser
imitated antique verse. One of the features of those verses was the use of
"Y" before the past participle, as "Yclad" instead of
"clad" ("dressed"). He was the first to use the nine-line
stanza. In this verse each line but the last has 10 syllables, the last line
has 12 syllables. The rhymed lines are arranged in the following way: a b a b b
c b c c.
A
gentle knight was pricking on the plain, a
Wherein
old dints of deep wounds did remain, a
The
cruel marks of many a bloody field; b
Yet
arms till that time did he never wield; b
His
angry steed did chide his foamy bit, c
As
much disdaining to the curb to yield; b
Full
jolly knight he seemed, and fair did sit, c
As
one for knightly jousts and fierce encounters fit. c
THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRAMA.
THE
THEATRES AND ACTORS
First
Period
The
development of the drama in England was in close connection with the appearance
and development of the theatre. Since ancient times there existed in Europe two
stages upon which dramatic art developed. The chief place of performance was
the church, and second to it was the market place where clowns played their
tricks.
The
church exhibited Bible-stories, called "Mysteries"; they also had
"Miracles" which were about supernatural events in the lives of
saints. Both, the miracles and mysteries were directed by the clergy and acted
by boys of the choir on great holidays. It has become a tradition since then to
have men-actors for heroines on the English stage.
Second
Period
Early
in the 15th century characters represented human qualities, such as Mercy, Sin,
Justice and Truth, began to be introduced into the miracle plays. The plays
were called "Moral plays" or "Moralities". They were
concerned with man's behaviour in this life. The devil figured in every ply and
he was the character always able to make the audience laugh. Moralities were
acted in town halls too.
Third
Period
It
was about the time of King Henry VIII, when the Protestants drove theatricals
out of the church, that acting became a distinct profession in England. Now the
actors performed in inncourt yards, which were admirably suited to dramatic
performances consisting as they did of a large open court surrounded by two
galleries. A platform projected into the middle of the yard with dressing rooms
at the back, There was planty of standing room around the stage, and people
came running in crowds as soon as they heard the trumpets announcing the
beginning of a play. To make the audience pay for its entertainment, the actors
took advantage of the most thrilling moment of the plot: this was the proper
time to send the hat round for a collection.
The
plays gradually changed; moralities now gave way to plays where historical and
actual characters appeared. The popular clowns from the market-place never
disappeared from the stage. They would shove in between the parts of a play and
talk the crowds into anything.
The
regular drama from its very beginning was divided into comedy and tragedy. Many
companies of players had their own dramatists who were actors too.
As
plays became more complicated, special playhouses came into existence. The
first regular playhouse in London was built in what had been the Blackfriars
Monastery where miracle plays had been performed before the Reformation. It was
built by James
Burbage
and was called "The Theatre" (a Greek word never used in England
before). Later, "The Rose", "The Curtain", "The
Swan" and many other playhouses appeared. These playhouses did not belong
to any company of players. Actors travelled from one place to another and hired
a building for their performances.
During
the reign of Queen Elizabeth the laws against the poor were very cruel.
Peasants who had lost their lands and went from town to town in search of work
were put into prison as tramps. Actors were often accused of being tramps, so
trave1ling became impossible. The companies of players had to find themselves a
patron among the nobility and with the aid of obtain rights to travel and to
perform. Thus some players called themselves "The Earl of Leicester's
Servants", others-"The Lord Chamberlain's Men", and in 1583 the
Queen appointed certain actors "Grooms of the Chamber" All their
plays were censored lest there be anything against the Church or the
government.
But
the worst enemies of the actors were the Puritans. They formed a religious sect
in England which wanted to purity the English Church from some forms that the
Church retained of roman Catholicism. The ideology of the Puritans was the
ideology of the smaller bourgeoisie who wished for a "cheaper church"
and who hoped they would become rich one day by careful living. They led a
modest and sober life. These principles, though moral at first sight, resulted
in a furious attack upon the stage. The companies of players were actually locked
out of the City because they thought acting a menace to public morality.
The
big merchants attacked the drama because players and playgoers caused them a
lot of trouble: the profits on beer went to proprietors of the inns and not to
the merchants; all sorts of people came to town, such as gamblers and thieves,
during the hot months of the year the plague was also spread strolling actors.
Often apprentices who were very much exploited by the merchants used to gather
at plays for the purpose of picking fights with their masters.
Towards the end of
the 16th century we find most of the playhouses far from the city proper.